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IT Jobs on Internet of Things - Best Group
( Best on-line Training for IoT)
All freshers and experienced software developers can join in this group who wish to take their career on Internet-of-things(IoT)
IT JOBS on Internet of Things - Join Today to get benefit.
Imagine a world where billions of objects can sense, communicate and share information, all
interconnected over public or private Internet Protocol (IP) networks. These interconnected
objects have data regularly collected, analysed and used to initiate action, providing a
wealth of intelligence for planning, management and decision making. This is the world of
the Internet of Things (IOT).
The IOT concept was coined by a member of the Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
development community in 1999, and it has recently become more relevant to the practical
world largely because of the growth of mobile devices, embedded and ubiquitous
communication, cloud computing and data analytics.
Best on-line Training for Internet of Things
Since then, many visionaries have seized on the phrase “Internet of Things” to refer to the
general idea of things, especially everyday objects, that are readable, recognisable,
locatable, addressable, and/or controllable via the Internet, irrespective of the
communication means (whether via RFID, wireless LAN, wide- area networks, or other
means). Everyday objects include not only the electronic devices we encounter or the
products of higher technological development such as vehicles and equipment but things
that we do not ordinarily think of as electronic at all - such as food and clothing. Examples of
“things” include:
-People;
-Location (of objects);
-Time Information (of objects);
-Condition (of objects).
These “things” of the real world shall seamlessly integrate into the virtual world, enabling
anytime, anywhere connectivity. In 2010, the number of everyday physical objects and
devices connected to the Internet was around 12.5 billion. Cisco forecasts that this figure is
expected to double to 25 billion in 2015 as the number of more smart devices per person
increases, and to a further 50 billion by 2020
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PDA
View Full Version : Newbie needs help with Cookies please
jdblewitt
07-19-2007, 01:57 AM
I'm new to php and thought this would be a good place to maybe get some answers.
I track information by including it into the url. For example: www.mysite.com/index.php?tr=keyword [tr meaning tracking, and I am tracking what keyword a user searched for before they came to my site (I have a separate url for each keyword)]. When a user leaves my site through one of my advertising partners links on my site i use this format to extract the tracking information from the url: www.link.com?tracking=<?php echo $_GET['tr'] ;?>
So basically I can determine where the sale originated from. My problem is that this only works when the user enters my site through the url with the tracking contained in it, and then leaves through one of my partners links.
If the user enters my site through the link with the tracking information in it and then "shops around" on my site, then the tracking information is lost because subsequent pages they would surf will not have the "tr" included in the url.
I'm guessing I have to somehow create a cookie that once the user enters my site, a cookie is set to the value of "tr" and then it can be called upon in any link throughout the entire site during that session.
I would really appreciate if someone could maybe give me some code and tell me exactly where to place it. I have tried to play around with the code given in the php manual for setting cookies, but it is really hard for me to understand and I keep getting errors. Thanks in advance!
_Aerospace_Eng_
07-19-2007, 02:38 AM
Look into using php sessions. They are better than cookies as they stored on the server and not the user's system.
http://www.tizag.com/phpT/phpsessions.php
jdblewitt
07-19-2007, 03:36 AM
Thank you soooooo much! That did it. I put this code in my main template as the first lines:
<?php
session_start();
if(isset($_SESSION['tracking']))
$_SESSION['tracking'] = $_SESSION['tracking'];
else
$_SESSION['tracking'] = $_GET['tr'];
?>
and then I made my links look like: www.outgoinglink.com?id=?<? php echo $_SESSION['tracking'] ;?>
Seems to work, and it is great that it was more simple than I thought. Thank you for allowing me to keep my sanity.
_Aerospace_Eng_
07-19-2007, 07:33 AM
You can probably just use this instead.
<?php
session_start();
if(isset($_GET['tr']))
$_SESSION['tracking'] = $_GET['tr'];
?>
That will set the session only if the tr variable is set. The way you were doing it was a little redundant. If the variable isn't set then nothing will occur. The session will be updated as well if they happen to go to another url with the tr variable set.
jdblewitt
07-20-2007, 03:48 AM
I had that at first, but I think it was a problem because the first page they visit is the only page with the 'tr' variable set, if they go to another page, the code looks for 'tr' (I have the session code on every page) and can't find it. This was my problem in the first place, but if they travel to the second and subsequent pages, then 'tr' is set on the first page and I can keep setting it to itself until the user ultimately clicks on a link that calls for it. If you see a problem with my logic, by all mean let me know.
Thanks again!
_Aerospace_Eng_
07-20-2007, 04:36 AM
I think the solution I posted would work because you are only wanting to set the session if tr is set anyways so I don't see the issue. If its not set on the other pages then no session is created. If it is set then the session is created with the most recent value. You don't have to keep setting it to itself because once set it is persistent. It will carry over to the end.
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设计模式-观察者模式
1、简单了解
在对象之间定义了一对多的依赖，这样一来，当一个对象改变状态，依赖它的对象会收到通知并自动更新，成为观察者模式。
观察者模式又称为发布/订阅(Publish/Subscribe)模式。
2、该模式包含四个角色
• 抽象被观察者角色：也就是一个抽象主题，它把所有对观察者对象的引用保存在一个集合中，每个主题都可以有任意数量的观察者。抽象主题提供一个接口，可以增加和删除观察者角色。一般用一个抽象类和接口来实现。
• 抽象观察者角色：为所有的具体观察者定义一个接口，在得到主题通知时更新自己。
• 具体被观察者角色：也就是一个具体的主题，在集体主题的内部状态改变时，所有登记过的观察者发出通知。
• 具体观察者角色：实现抽象观察者角色所需要的更新接口，一边使本身的状态与制图的状态相协调
3、我们来看一个例子
公众号推送消息的案例(来源：https://www.cnblogs.com/luohanguo/p/7825656.html)
1）定义一个抽象被观察者接口
/**
抽象被观察者接口
*/
public interface Observerable {
void registerObserver(Observer o);
void removeObserver(Observer o);
void notifyObserver();
}
2)定义一个抽象观察者接口
public interface Observer {
void update(String message);
}
3)定义被观察者，实现了Observerable接口，对Observerable接口的三个方法进行了具体实现，同时有一个List集合，用以保存注册的观察者，等需要通知观察者时，遍历该集合即可
public class WechatServer implements Observerable {
// 注意到这个List集合的泛型参数为Observer接口，设计原则：面向接口编程而不是面向实现编程
private List<Observer> list;
private String message;
public WechatServer() {
list = new ArrayList<Observer>();
}
@Override
public void registerObserver(Observer o) {
list.add(o);
}
@Override
public void removeObserver(Observer o) {
if (!list.isEmpty())
list.remove(o);
}
@Override
public void notifyObserver() {
for (int i = 0; i < list.size(); i++) {
Observer oserver = list.get(i);
oserver.update(message);
}
}
public void setInfomation(String s) {
this.message = s;
System.out.println("微信服务更新消息： " + s);
// 消息更新，通知所有观察者
notifyObserver();
}
}
4)定义具体观察者，微信公众号的具体观察者为用户User
public class User implements Observer {
private String name;
private String message;
public User(String name) {
this.name = name;
}
@Override
public void update(String message) {
this.message = message;
read();
}
public void read() {
System.out.println(name + " 收到推送消息： " + message);
}
}
5)测试
首先注册了三个用户，ZhangSan、LiSi、WangWu。公众号发布了一条消息"PHP是世界上最好用的语言！"，三个用户都收到了消息。
用户ZhangSan看到消息后颇为震惊，果断取消订阅，这时公众号又推送了一条消息，此时用户ZhangSan已经收不到消息，其他用户
还是正常能收到推送消息。
public static void main(String[] args) {
WechatServer server = new WechatServer();
Observer userZhang = new User("ZhangSan");
Observer userLi = new User("LiSi");
Observer userWang = new User("WangWu");
server.registerObserver(userZhang);
server.registerObserver(userLi);
server.registerObserver(userWang);
server.setInfomation("PHP是世界上最好用的语言！");
System.out.println("----------------------------------------------");
server.removeObserver(userZhang);
server.setInfomation("JAVA是世界上最好用的语言！");
}
20200115125233
4、总结
• 优点
1）观察者和被观察者之间抽象耦合。观察者模式容易扩展，被观察者只持有观察者集合，并不需要知道具体观察者内部的实现。
2）对象之间的保持高度的协作。当被观察者发生变化时，所有被观察者都会通知到，然后做出相应的动作。
• 缺点
1）如果观察者太多，被观察者通知观察者消耗的时间很多，影响系统的性能。
2）当观察者集合中的某一观察者错误时就会导致系统卡壳，因此一般会采用异步方式。
Copyright: 采用 知识共享署名4.0 国际许可协议进行许可
Links: https://www.fengpt.cn/archives/设计模式-观察者模式
|
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
|
1,929,543,258,785,839,900
|
How to skip replication identity constraints in SQL Compare
Hi All,
I am running a SQL compare on a database participating in Merge replication, i got output with many tables showing differences between replication constraint identity range difference.
eg:
Server 1:
ALTER TABLE [dbo].[Application] ADD CHECK (([ApplicationId]>(9) AND [ApplicationId]<=(1009) OR [ApplicationId]>(1009) AND [ApplicationId]<=(2009)))
GO
Server 2:
ALTER TABLE [dbo].[Application] ADD CHECK (([ApplicationId]>(1234009) AND [ApplicationId]<=(1235009) OR [ApplicationId]>(1235009) AND [ApplicationId]<=(1236009)))
GO
i was wondering if there is an option to ignore this constraint in the SQL compare.
thanks
jagadeep
Tagged:
Answers
Sign In or Register to comment.
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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-8,511,480,572,239,409,000
|
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How to get customer information using the phone number from service desk rest api?
Edited
I have a customer phone number and I need to get the details of the customer like customer info, issues, tickets etc. by using service desk rest api
1 answer
0 votes
Andy Heinzer
Atlassian Team
Atlassian Team members are employees working across the company in a wide variety of roles.
Feb 25, 2020
Hi @harish287
I understand you are using Jira Service Desk and are looking to be able to retrieve customer data based off their phone number via the REST API.
Natively, Jira Cloud and Jira Server do not store a user's phone number anywhere in the account information. So this is not typically something we can typically find via the REST API. That said, perhaps you're using a 3rd party add-on to Jira such as Service Desk LastChangeCallCenter for Jira Service Desk, or some other Marketplace add-on that might store this data within Jira's database. If that is the case, then certainly your Jira environment might have this data appearing within the application.
Add-ons for Jira have various different ways they could potentially be storing this kind of data. Because of this, the answer to your question isn't yet clear. It might be possible to do this via the REST API, but then again, the add-on might not be store this data in a manner that we can actually query from REST. Also, user data retrieval in Jira Cloud (as opposed to Jira Server) tends to be a bit more restrictive with the GDPR changes Jira Cloud has rolled out in the last year or so. These changes were made to help protect user privacy and are detailed more in Deprecation notice and migration guide for major changes to Jira Cloud REST APIs to improve user privacy. So the answer here might also very much depend on your platform (Jira Cloud vs Jira Server/Data Center) here.
If you can let me know more about your environment, such as platform and add-ons present, perhaps I can research some more to find a better answer. Please let me know.
Andy
Hi, @Andy
I'm using node js, and coming to the add-on I'm using the CallCenter for Jira Service Desk.I have to manage the issues based on the phone number of the user.For example whenever the user calls service desk. I have to take the phone number as a parameter.Then we have to find out the open issues of that user.
I have almost tried every possible option. But I couldn't achieve that task.
Thanks,
Harish
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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4,215,603,457,557,050,400
|
ggarman
1 Copper
Inspiron 11 - 3147 Power off but still on!!!????
Just installed Windows 10 Home with the anniversary release and upgraded BIOS to A10. Now, the really weird part is if I power it off completely it is still running somehow because the case is warm back around the CPU vent slots. It isn't plugged in charging, Windows goes through its shutdown normally, screen goes completely black, all lights are off, but it stays warm and eventually drains the battery. I've also had the difficulties resuming from sleep like others have had.
Has anyone else had the "staying on after power off" issue?
Is reverting to A07 BIOS the only solution? Is A11 coming out soon with the fix?
Thanks!
0 Kudos
|
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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8,612,478,173,378,835,000
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sound waves
Sound is converted into electricity by a telephone and then transmitted as an analog signal.
These waves have 3 fundamental characteristics:
1. Amplitude, meaning the height (intensity) of the wave
2. Frequency, which is the number of waves that pass in a single second and is measured in Hertz (cycles/second) (wavelength, the length of the wave from crest to crest, is related to frequency.).
3. Phase is a third characteristic that describes the point in the wave’s cycle at which a wave begins and is measured in degrees. (For example, changing a wave’s cycle from crest to trough corresponds to a 180 degree phase shift).
wave
2 thoughts on “sound waves
1. Hello alicia I am sorry about replying late , the next blog on the subject of modulation is still under process . I shall email notify you as soon as it publishes 🙂
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3,133,876,298,294,846,000
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losartan, Cozaar: Get Drug Facts, Side Effects, and Dosing
losartan, Cozaar
Pharmacy Author:
Medical and Pharmacy Editor:
Medical and Pharmacy Editor:
GENERIC NAME: losartan
BRAND NAME: Cozaar
DRUG CLASS AND MECHANISM: Losartan is an oral medication that belongs to a class of drugs called angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs). Other ARBs include irbesartan (Avapro), valsartan (Diovan), and candesartan (Atacand). Angiotensin formed in the blood by the action of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is a powerful chemical that attaches to angiotensin receptors found in many tissues but primarily on smooth muscle cells of blood vessels. Angiotensin's attachment to the receptors causes the muscle cells to contract and the blood vessels to narrow (vasoconstrict) which leads to an increase in blood pressure (hypertension). Losartan (more specifically, the chemical formed when the liver converts the inactive losartan into its active form) blocks the angiotensin receptor. By blocking the action of angiotensin, losartan relaxes muscle cells and dilates blood vessels thereby reducing blood pressure.
Losartan was approved by the FDA in April 1995.
PRESCRIBED FOR: Losartan is used for:
• Treating hypertension and reducing the risk of stroke in patients with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy (over developed heart muscle).
• Treating diabetic nephropathy (kidney disease) in people with hypertension and type 2 diabetes.
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 12/18/2014
Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration
You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit the FDA MedWatch website or call 1-800-FDA-1088.
Pill Finder Tool
Need help identifying pills and medications?
Use the pill identifier tool on RxList.
Back to Medications Index
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-8,249,785,451,441,035
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Peter M. May
Learn More
Formation constants for the calcium(II), magnesium(II) and zinc(II) complexes of the orally effective iron chelator, pyridoxal isonicotinoyl hydrazone (PIH) and three analogues, pyridoxal benzoyl hydrazone (PBH), pyridoxalp-methoxybenzoyl hydrazone (PpMBH) and pyridoxalm-fluorobenzoyl hydrazone (PmFBH) have been determined by potentiometry at 25\dg C(More)
Formation constants for the calcium(II), copper(II), iron(II), magnesium(II), manganese(II) and zinc(II) complexes ofdl-NN'-dicarboxamidomethyl-NN'-dicarboxymethyl-1,2-diaminopropane (ICRF 198) and the 1,2-diamino-butane homologue (ICRF 226) have been measured potentiometrically at 37°C andI=150 mmol dm−3 [NaCl]. The constants are used in computer(More)
Estimates of the concentrations and identity of the predominant complexes of iron with the low-molecular-mass ligands in vivo are important to improve current understanding of the metabolism of this trace element. These estimates require a knowledge of the stability of the iron-citrate complexes. Previous studies on the equilibrium properties of the(More)
The ionic product of water, pK(w)=-log[H(+)][OH(-)], has been determined in aqueous solutions of sodium perchlorate over the concentration range of 1.0-8.0 M at 25 degrees C from high-precision potentiometric titrations carried out in cells with liquid junction using both glass and hydrogen electrodes. The glass electrode results are systematically lower(More)
Although the absolute concentrations of metal complexes in blood plasma are controlled by protein binding, the percentage distribution of transition metal ions amongst low molecular weight ligands is not. Thus, computer simulations which omit protein equilibria can nevertheless afford reliable information about such metals in the biofluid.
Formation constants for copper(II) and zinc(II) complexes of isonicotinoylhydrazine (isoniazid) and guanosine-5′-monophosphate have been measured potentiometrically at 37°C,I=150 mmol dm−3 [NaCl]. These constants have been used in computer models to assess the extent of complex formation by the drugin vivo. The simulations indicate that the predominant(More)
The metal complexing properties of two antihypertensive drugs, hydralazine (1-hydrazinophthalazine) and prizidilol (a hydrazinopyridazine), and some related ligands, have been studied using potentiometry, elemental analysis, spectrophotometry and computer simulation. The coordination chemistry of 1-hydrazinophthalazine and the hydrazinopyridazines is(More)
The thermodynamic database of the JESS (Joint Expert Speciation System) software package is described. It overcomes many existing problems associated with solution-chemistry databases. The system is fully interactive. Reactions can be expressed in any form. Any number of equilibrium constants, enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs-free energy values can be associated(More)
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Communications The Internet Verizon
Ask Slashdot: Is There a War Against Small Mail Servers? 459
Posted by Soulskill
from the lazy-spam-prevention dept.
softegg writes "My company hosts our own mail server. We have high-speed business connections through Verizon and Comcast. Recently, Verizon and Comcast have been blocking port 25, causing our private mail server to stop functioning. Additionally, a lot of ISPs just started blocking any mail coming from any IP in the address block of cable modems. This caused us to start laundering our mail through a third-party service called DNSExit. Now, McAfee's MAPS anti-spam system tells us they are blocking DNSExit for spam. Essentially, we are finding ourselves increasingly cut off from sending any outgoing mail. What is a small company supposed to do if you want to host your own mail?"
This discussion has been archived. No new comments can be posted.
Ask Slashdot: Is There a War Against Small Mail Servers?
Comments Filter:
• Not much to do (Score:5, Informative)
by enec (1922548) * <[email protected]> on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:33PM (#35272714) Homepage
Most ISPs block outgoing port 25 because 99.99% of that traffic is viruses or otherwise malicious computers trying to send spam. Even more mail services block all dynamic pools used by major ISPs because of the same reason.
Just invest a few bucks a month into a cheap hosted VPS behind a static IP where you can run the server.
• Re: (Score:2, Insightful)
by Anonymous Coward
You have several options.
1) Get a real internet Service provider.
2) Host mail on a different server such as a vps
3) host mail on a different server and use Fetchmail to pull mail and send mail out bound.
4) Configure your server to send mail through your ISPs send mail server. Receiving mail may be a problem depending on ISP.
• by DJRumpy (1345787)
The correct action is to call Comcast or whoever your provider is and get an exception. Comcast at the time I had them, and Time Warner now, have no issue with someone running a server on a business contract. If you are using a personal (home) account and running one however, it shouldn't surprise you if you were blocked (I know the article says a business account but it's relevant to the discussion). Both stated that was against the TOS to run servers on 'home' accounts.
• Re: (Score:2, Informative)
by Anonymous Coward
Or stop using a dynamic IP for a business. I know static IPv4 addresses are an endangered species, but come on man.
• by pipatron (966506)
We have high-speed business connections through Verizon and Comcast
Would these be dynamic too?
• by dosius (230542)
Maybe, maybe not. I have "high speed" (4 Mbps ADSL) through Verizon and it's static IP, though I pay out the arm for it.
-uso.
• Re:Not much to do (Score:4, Informative)
by icebike (68054) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:09PM (#35273180)
Or stop using a dynamic IP for a business. I know static IPv4 addresses are an endangered species, but come on man.
Agreed.
Our company has the business pacakge from Comcast which includes a static IP.
Its not a problem for our mail server. We don't get blocked, and our reverse is properly set up, and our IP is in a
non-dynamic pool. Yeah, we pay a tad more for this. But we can run all the services we want, and our mail
goes out.
Most of the blockage you get with dynamic SENDING IPs is on the the RECEIVING end, not always your local
ISP.
• by moco (222985)
Static IP is not enough. You also need your ISP to change the reverseDNS records or else you end up on many RBLs. Unfortunately, not many ISPs are willing to do that.
Anyway, you are better off sending your email "to the cloud", contracting an SMTP relaying service or renting a VPS if you can't afford a dedicated (T1/E1) connection.
• by yakatz (1176317)
You also need your ISP to change the reverseDNS records or else you end up on many RBLs. Unfortunately, not many ISPs are willing to do that.
Verizon is more than willing to change the DNS PTRs for anyone who calls the business support line and claims to be from the business that has the service.
When I called for the company I work for, they asked for our billing address and phone number, nothing more (and those are public information).
• by guybrush3pwood (1579937) on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:37PM (#35272770) Homepage
"First, they went after port 25, but I didn't care, because I didn't host my own mail server..."
blah blah blah, you know how it goes
• by EdIII (1114411)
It's not just the ISPs. This is a problem with SPAM in general.
If you are running a mail server on a dynamic IP address block that your ISP states cannot be running a mail server you are going to be on the Policy.Block.List.
Whether or not the ISP lets your traffic go out is irrelevant. It's whether or not my mail server will accept your connections. It won't. I do scrub incoming IP addresses with multiple RBL providers that I trust to give me fairly clean results. PBL's are included in this, so I won't
• So unfortunately due to a bunch of dickhead marketers and organized crime in foreign countries the email system is largely broken.
Foreign countries? Last time I checked, the USA was the clear leader in sending out spam. But indeed, this is not a problem with the servers. We are just trying to protect ourselves from spam. Blame the spammers. I report all unflagged spam to SpamCop, and by doing that I managed to make a few of them lose their accounts. It's kinda funny to see their responses, claiming they did not spam.
• by pipatron (966506)
due to a bunch of dickhead marketers and organized crime in foreign countries
Foreign if you're in europe maybe. Last time I checked, most spam originated from the US. Maybe it has changed the last year or two. Or maybe the dickhead marketers in the US vastly outnumber the organized crime (what's the difference, btw).
• Re:Not much to do (Score:4, Informative)
by PIBM (588930) on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:38PM (#35272792) Homepage
A lot of companies offer static ips for which you can set all the reverse dns & email information, and they are also out of their normal subscriber pool, thus allowing you to send emails from the computer behind it. The cost of that option is usually lower than 5$ per ip per month around here.
• What about those who send e-mails from their e-mail clients like Outlook? I send a lot of e-mails from my home PCs that use port 25 (SMTP) from Mozilla's SeaMonkey mail client. I don't like webmails.
• by mlts (1038732) *
Even if the traffic is not blocked, a lot of places will not accept mail if dumped through an IP address on a known dynamic range.
So, one needs to split mail two ways:
Incoming mail, cable ISPs tend to block just because. Telcos tend to allow incoming 25. This plus dynamic DNS solves this part.
Outgoing mail can be routed through the ISP's SMTP server, or if the mail volume is too much for that, there are third party outgoing SMTP services which act as relay hosts.
• by geohump (782273)
Both comcast and verizon's business services provide static IP addresses, and those addresses are not supposed to be in the dynamic IP blocks which each ISP provides to the various block list services.
If the ISP itself is blocking the outbound port 25 port, and/or reporting the IP they gave you as dynamic, complain bitterly, and sue. Begin the law suit immediately after they don't fix the problem within a few days after a written complaint. Solict other businesses who have been adversely affected and mount
• by raitchison (734047) * <[email protected]> on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:36PM (#35272756) Homepage Journal
If your ISP (Verizon and Comcast) are blocking port 25 outbound it doesn't sound like they think you have a "Business" connection. Check your contract/TOS for any provisions that would prevent you from running a server (common for residential cable connections but not for business) and if there isn't one call and complain. If they won't unblock port 25 for your mail server (assuming it's properly configured) you need to find a new ISP.
• Re: (Score:2, Informative)
>>>you need to find a new ISP.
That would be great, if the government had not given Comcast/Verizon an exclusive monopoly (or duopoly). And then decided not to regulate them.
Choice - we don't haze it.
• There are no DSL providers available in this area?
Even if there are not Cable or DSL providers there are always more traditional connectivity options, of course those might be cost prohibitive for a small company.
• by ScentCone (795499)
the government had not given Comcast/Verizon an exclusive monopoly
Which government ... your local city government?
• by jimicus (737525) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:08PM (#35273164)
If your ISP is preventing 25 outbound, you don't have an ISP.
TBH, I'm not quite sure what you do have. I've met that sort of thing once before, I would describe them as a Web access provider.
• by dougmc (70836)
If your ISP is preventing 25 outbound, you don't have an ISP.
You are picking nits, but that setup for end users is quite common.
In most cases, 25/tcp isn't totally blocked outbound -- you can usually connect to the ISP's mail server and use it to relay your mail. That way, they get to make sure you're not spamming (and can monitor and control your mail if they want, though they could just do that by sniffing the network if they wanted too.)
• by v1 (525388)
It's been my experience that they block outgoing connections on port 25 to any ip except their mailserver. This prevents spamzombies from using external open relays or directly relaying to destination mailservers.
Sometimes the ISP's dns server requires authentication, which is ideal, but sometimes not. Even with their internal relay open though, it's very easy for them to monitor for abuse if the zombie figures out the IP address of the mailserver, and just cut it off. They usually then just cut off your
• It could be the block lists as well. Make sure you have a business class service with a static IP as those are least likely to be in the block lists. Also add "@ IN TXT v=spf1 mx ?all" and "domain.name IN TXT v=spf1 mx ?all" to your DNS zone record.
• Most residential providers block port 25. Part of it is they just don't want servers on residential connections but another part is spam prevention. 99.999% of home connections have no reason to run something on 25 and if they are, it just means their system is owned and spamming.
For servers, you need a business class line, which has no restrictions. I have a business class Cox cable line at home for that reason. Lets me have static IPs, no port blocking, more upstream, and no bandwidth limits. It does cost
• Comcast's idea of the Internet is an increasingly detached 'consumer endpoint' version of the Internet. If you're not in a rural area, then find a true Internet provider and move on.
• If you're in a rural area you probably don't have Comcast or Verizon anyway. Neither of them provide service for miles on any side of me.
• by Frosty Piss (770223) * on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:38PM (#35272786)
I haven't had this issue with Comcast Business (static IP). Port 25 works just fine. But, some recipients don't like us.
• by edmudama (155475) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:03PM (#35273102)
My Comcast Business account explicitly allows servers on the static IP, including mail, web, etc. Anything allowed unless it's against the law in the local jurisdiction. If you go over bandwidth caps, they reserve the right to promote you automatically to the next tier of service. At the top tier, there are no caps.
It costs a little extra, but it seems to me like a business big enough to run it's own mail server should be able to afford the ~$75-100/mo for a business cable modem account.
• But, some recipients don't like us.
Check your DNS entries. A clean and proper DNS will help keep you off spam block lists.
• Over here in Australia quite a few ISPs will have port blocking like this turned on but they do provide you the option to disable it. It can even be done online via their user control panel.
Have you spoken to your ISPs about this issue?
• by way2trivial (601132) on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:40PM (#35272820) Homepage Journal
they only (so far as I know) block ports on residential accounts
you don't mention it, I suspect you are using a residential class account.
I have a comcast business account.. 2 actually.
pay for an account where the TOS allow servers... they won't block the port
before I had a 2nd commercial account, (at my home)
my biggest gripe was connections from my home to work
took too many hops to go 8 miles in very different ip ranges...
see if comcastbusiness.net is on the block lists you fear..
• Comcast & Verizon have been known to routinely treat business customers as residential customers. ,
• Usually when ISPs block port 25 (ostensibly because of all the botnets sending spam, a wise precaution that I advocate) they will provide a mail relay for their customers to connect to. They might not advertise it as that, but if your ISP (still?) provides a POP3 mail service, then they're going to give you an SMTP one too. Failing that, why not put a relay on any server you have in a datacenter or colocated? Configure it so only your computers can relay though it and it'll be fine.
• by shentino (1139071)
What if they block port 25 as an incentive for you to pay for SMTP access?
Anyone with a resource under their absolute control will be tempted to restrict access to it for economic reasons.
• this seems more like a casualty of war with spammers.
• I suspect that it is a mixture of "collateral damage in the war on spammers" and "convenient mechanism for price discrimination".
Back in the day, the ISPs could use the simple "dialup=cheap gits(unless they inquire about worldwide availability of dial-in numbers, in which case Soak 'em), T1=Soak 'em" heuristic to more or less distinguish between business and home users.
Now that a T1 is pitifully slow by consumer broadband standards(and, depending on location and providers, not much more reliable than
• by Omnifarious (11933) * <(eric-slash) (at) (omnifarious.org)> on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:41PM (#35272846) Homepage Journal
I've run my own mailserver for over a decade. It's IP has changed every few years if I switch ISPs, but otherwise it remains stable. I have a static IP on a DSL line and have reverse mappings set up. I have SPF records. I've registered with a whitelist. I've done everything I can. And still nobody who uses hotmail gets email from me. And I have increasing difficulty getting email to anybody else.
And I do not believe a single spam message has ever made it out from my network. I even block outgoing port 25 for the network segment my roommates use (when I have roommates) unless I'm administrating their computers.
This whole trend is really upsetting to me, and totally broken. I never have a problem sending email to someone with a gmail.com address, and they have the best spam filtering of any email provider I've ever used. The shortcut of blocking any DSL IP is clearly unnecessary if Google can do such a good job without it.
• by anom (809433)
I remember once upon a time when I was first setting up my mail server I experienced this exact problem. As I recall, there was some kind of hotmail-ish website I went to that helped me get its IP allowed by their system.
Here are some great resources on sending email to hotmail:
http://mail.live.com/mail/troubleshooting.aspx [live.com] (generic troubleshooting page for sending to hotmail)
https://postmaster.live.com/snds/ [live.com] (Signing up here lets you see what hotmail thinks of a specific IP, assuming you control RDNS
• by bcrowell (177657) on Monday February 21, 2011 @08:31PM (#35274302) Homepage
I've had similar problems.
The clueful email service providers are yahoo and gmail. They both support dkim and sign all their outbound mail with dkim. They both have mechanisms for reporting dkim-signed spam from their users ( http://mail.google.com/support/bin/request.py?hl=en&contact_type=abuse [google.com] and http://help.yahoo.com/l/us/yahoo/mail/classic/spam.html [yahoo.com] ). If you dkim-sign your own outgoing email, you can go through a process with yahoo http://help.yahoo.com/l/us/yahoo/mail/postmaster/forms_index.html [yahoo.com] to tell them that, and if the info you provide satisfies them, your mails are less likely to end up in users' spam boxes.
The one that doesn't work for me is AOL. Any email I send to their users goes straight to the bitbucket. I have never been able to find any mechanism for convincing them that I'm not a spammer. I'm sending mail from a dedicated server with a permanent IP address, SPF, DKIM, and reverse DNS all set up properly.
This whole trend is really upsetting to me, and totally broken. I never have a problem sending email to someone with a gmail.com address, and they have the best spam filtering of any email provider I've ever used. The shortcut of blocking any DSL IP is clearly unnecessary if Google can do such a good job without it.
It baffles me that some large email providers like hotmail and AOL don't implement DKIM. The added CPU load is negligible on a modern machine. I'm not saying that DKIM is a cure-all, but it works much better than these silly, ad hoc measures like blocking all vanity domains. If someone with a yahoo account sends spam to someone's gmail account, the user can report it to yahoo, yahoo can verify the dkim signature so they know it really came from that account, and they can deactivate the account. If someone sends spam to a gmail account, and they claim to be a yahoo user but they aren't, google can detect that it isn't properly signed and trash the mail.
• That's how this looks in a telnet port 25 session from a DSL line:
telnet mx2.hotmail.com 25
220 bay0-mc3-f21.Bay0.hotmail.com Sending unsolicited commercial or bulk e-mail
to Microsoft's computer network is prohibited. Other restrictions are found at h
ttp://privacy.msn.com/Anti-spam/. Violations will result in use of equipment loc
ated in California and other states. Mon, 21 Feb 2011 17:47:40 -0800
EHLO mine.home.net
250-bay0-mc3-f21.Bay0.hotmail.com (3.12.0.56) Hello [xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx]
250-SIZE 36909875
250-PIPELI
• by peacefinder (469349) <[moc.liamg] [ta] [ttiwed.nala]> on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:42PM (#35272862) Journal
I had a customer (a small town government) recently have port 25 outbound blocked by Comcast. After going around with Comcast for a bit, it turned out that they were subscribed to a residential-class service, which has port 25 outbound blocked by an implacable policy. The only way to get the port unblocked in this case would have been to move them to a business-class service with a static IP. (Fortunately the block wasn't a big deal for them, we were just using it for automated status reporting rather than running an inhouse mailserver.)
• I have Comcast business class, but I used to have Comcast at my home and both setups just required a call to customer service to ask to unblock port 25 because you're hosting your mailserver there. They're usually pretty helpful about doing what you need done - I even had them put in a reverse DNS (ptr) record for my mailserver's IP addy because some mailservers do reverse lookups to see if the IP points to a/the hostname (try "nslookup -> set q=ptr -> ip.add.re.ss" to check it) for spam control.
• Sounds like your company is extremely cheap & stupid for not just getting a real Internet connection. I don't blame companies for straight-up blocking any mail traffic originating from blocks of cable modem IPs...it's generally a source of illegitimate spam. Tell your boss to put down the money for a T1 to use for email. Route all other traffic through your cable connection.
• by nimbius (983462) on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:46PM (#35272920) Homepage
are inappropriate for small businesses yet continue to grow in popularity due to their heavy marketing and low cost.
Contact your local bell, or find a t1/t3 reseller, and let them know you need a fractional leased line. the cost is higher, but you get a real service level agreement to which the provider is contractually obligated.
using a dedicated/shared server for email hosting has its drawbacks. the shared server may become overloaded by spammer accounts and other users, and its generally not a priority for most hosting companies as they get very little money off a shared hosting sale. dedicated hosting is just as bad because you're commonly forced through one relay host, or a set of relay hosts that routinely become overwhelmed by spammers on your providers other dedicated hosting boxes. the dedicated and shared boxes are also notorious for floating in and out of various blacklists and sender reputation services, so you can expect mail to break-down about once every few weeks.
• Both Comcast and Verizon are inappropriate for small businesses yet continue to grow in popularity due to their heavy marketing and low cost. Contact your local bell, ...
Verizon would be his local bell.
• As someone who has both a 5 mig fiber to Qwest, and a Comcast business class, I disagree. While you are correct that there is no SLA, as long as it is not "full" it performs well, and give much more bang for the buck. But once the connection starts to saturate, performance goes down fast. Horses for courses.
• by Lehk228 (705449)
Verizon is one of the baby bells (bell atlantic)
• Most mail server software is capable of routing the outbound mail through the isp's mail server in such a way that it gets listed as the origin. You get to keep running your mail server, but the spam labelling and port blocking issues all go away.
The only time this is an issue is if the isp's mail servers do some kind of filtering or mangling, but most of the ones I've dealt with don't
• by sirsnork (530512)
This!
If he can't be bothered to call his ISP and ask them to unblock it, and really does have a Business account that allows server, then this is the solution. It's really quite simple to do on every mail server I've ever tried it on.
If you use SPF you may want to update the records for it to list your ISP's outbound IP addresses, but I'm guessing if there is outbound port 25 blocking issues going on and that required an Ask Slashdot then SPF isn't something in use :)
• Rent a dedicated server, or get your own co-location space. I have one that I pay $70 a month for with 1and1 [1and1.com]. I use 'em because I was able to install my own OS image on there, and they're generous with the bandwidth, although I'm not sure I'd run a company's e-mail server through them--the network connection can be flaky. About a year ago they went down after 5pm for an hour or so for a week or two due to a DDoS, then the last week they have been not accepting new connections (existing connections work fine
• by EMR (13768) on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:55PM (#35273026)
My dad's server is on Business Cable and Port 25 is not blocked and we have had no issues running our mail server on that connection.. Now one thing that we did do to aid in preventing us from being blocked is requesting our 5 IPs setup with reverse DNS entries to our domains instead of the Generic "ISP looking" ones that comcast assigns by default. You should contact Comcast and Verizon to set that up.
Also, make sure when you are testing if port 25 is "open" that you aren't yourself on an ISP that blocks 25 outbound. And make sure you setup port 587 (SMTP submission.. Authenticated SMTP) so that users can send mail from any ISP.
• by proxima (165692) on Monday February 21, 2011 @05:56PM (#35273048)
Even if you have a non-cable modem IP, it can be difficult to send (opt-in) business email from a small mail server. The reason is that spam filters at major email providers like Yahoo are turning to whitelisting [yahoo.com], and you have to contact each major provider to avoid getting your email sent straight to the spam filter.
Since the implementations of spam filters at the server level seem to vary quite a bit, I tend to avoid sending particularly important single emails through my own small email server for fear they just end up in the spam folder of the recipient.
That said, in general I wouldn't trust a business-class cable modem connection to host an email server for business purposes. Virtualized servers are commonplace now and quite affordable (I pay $15/mo for mostly personal use). Set up the backup on your own connection.
• Most likely your system is misconfigured and sending misdelivery reports rather than rejecting the smtp request in realtime or worse (open relay)
Comcast and Verizon are reacting by shutting you down...you have to beg to get it restored from what I understand...
There is no good solution for most of us other than to just relay thru comcasts SMTP server.
Comcasts user networks are in the subscriber block lists of many RBLs however typically business class accounts are exempted from these lists.
For outgo
• by Bigbutt (65939) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:00PM (#35273090) Homepage Journal
I host my personal server with a Mosaic forum (Mosaic and Stained Glass.org) out of a CoLo in Florida. It's not the cheapest solution but I do get 100% access to the server to do what I want and a reasonable time on reboots when necessary.
Still, Microsoft will randomly block my mail for a month at a time with no recourse. I've attempted to contact them but they send me to a troubleshooting page which tells me I'm configured correctly but they still won't accept email. This wouldn't be too bad of a problem except that other ISPs use them to manage their e-mail. So I can't get any e-mail to Shaw.ca or AT&T in Canada. They don't even have a whitelist option for their users.
And there are a few smaller ISPs in the US that use anti spam blocking sites that don't have any way to let them know that I'm not spamming.
Most others though have contact information in their bounce and I've used it to check the various sites in the block list, then forward the results to the postmaster at the offended site. Then I get it opened up for the folks on the forum.
Heck, one ISP replied that I needed to get in touch with them and their Postmaster account won't accept further e-mail. I had to send them a note from my Yahoo account. Then they said it was a problem with my ISP and they should fix it. My ISP had no idea what they could do to fix it.
Even the company I work at, who uses MX-Logic can't receive e-mails from me because I'm not able to convince MX-Logic I'm not a spammer.
On the plus side, if I did want to spam Microsoft, they have a program where if I pay them, they'll open their servers up so I can send e-mail to their clients.
I'm not doing any real business on the server. I have my consulting website there but traffic is pretty much non-existent. The biggest impact is when the forum folk try to send the other folks e-mails (the PM notifications). I have a note in the Site Agreement to let folks know on shaw.ca, frontier, and the others that they might want to use a Yahoo e-mail to manage their forum account.
[John]
• by RogueWarrior65 (678876) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:00PM (#35273094)
CableOne has blocked outgoing mail for years. It's annoying to have to reconfigure your mail program every time you travel somewhere. And it hasn't stopped the flow of prescription drug e-mails and Nigerian-ish scam e-mails. Hell, if all of those e-mail from barristers in foreign countries telling me a long lost relative left me several million dollars were real, I could by that 30,000 acre ranch in western Wyoming...and a helicopter. And why is it always a seven-figure inheritance? Wouldn't more stupid people believe $20,000?
• VPS (Score:4, Informative)
by dlevitan (132062) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:02PM (#35273098)
Get a VPS. You can get one for $20/month and set up a full e-mail server on it. You'll get better hardware and better connectivity than your own server. Your IP will be seen as coming from a data center, not a cable modem pool of addresses. You can also host your own website, and leave the server you have at your office for internal things only. For mail access, just set up IMAP and SMTP with TLS, with the latter on port 587 (known as the submission port) which is generally not blocked like 25 is.
• by DigiShaman (671371) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:03PM (#35273104) Homepage
Being that I setup SBS 2003 and SBS 2008 boxes, let me explain what you really need to make it work.
1. A business class ISP subscription. Along with this classification, you get a netblock of IP/s that (usually) wont be preemptively blacklisted by SORBS (I hate them).
2. Reverse DNS (PTR) record. Not having one is almost guaranteed to get your sent e-mails blocked. Getting one created is easy as pie if you subscribe to a business class ISP.
3. SPF record. They're many online wizards to help you create one. My favorite is from Microsoft.
4. DNS that will host TXT records. Needed for that SPF record you just created.
Once all completed, be sure you test out your handy work over at http://www.mxtoolbox.com/ [mxtoolbox.com] Good luck.
• Assuming the domain in question is softegg.com, then reverse DNS is indeed not setup correctly, and it is no surprise that his email is getting blocked.
• Correct. a reverse lookup points to (static-71-178-232-50.washdc.fios.verizon.net) which means he hasn't set up a PTR yet. He needs to simply call his ISP and create one over the phone. A process that should take all but 5 minutes. Another problem I see is what's listed in the SMTP banner of the responding mail server. I'm not sure localhost.localdomain is valid. And while he's at it, cleanup those MX records. I don't see why there's triplicate of the same IP with different weighting. Not that this will cau
• A few things to try (Score:5, Informative)
by chrisgeleven (514645) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:05PM (#35273132) Homepage
1) Get a static IP address for your mail server if you don't already have one. Many mail servers use DNSBL blacklists that distrust anyone with a Dynamic IP address.
2) Get your ISP to configure Reverse DNS for your mail server's IP address. Many mail servers reject mail because Reverse DNS isn't configured properly.
3) Make sure your server is set to not run as an open relay.
4) Have a proper abuse@ and postmaster@ e-mail addresses so e-mail providers who claim to have spam complaints against your domain can actually send them to you.
5) Setup an SPF record (openspf.org has a great wizard for this) for your domain. SPF records basically specify which mail servers are allowed to send mail from your domain. This will help cut down on spammers spoofing e-mail addresses at your domain and increases the odds of legit e-mail not being marked as spam.
Not all of these will guarentee delivery of any e-mail, but they can certainly improve the odds.
• Forward 25 port to SSL one - thats how we do it at company where I work. 25 port is blocked cause of spam.
• by Imagix (695350) on Monday February 21, 2011 @06:08PM (#35273170)
First question... do you have a residential or a business link? That usually changes the network preferences. As I recall most residential agreements prohibit running servers on the network to begin with.
• 1) Talk to your ISP and get the block removed.
2) Change registrars / DNS providers to EasyDNS. They do mail forwarding for customers. Don't bother if you send spam - they'll quickly shut you down.
3) Set up a VPS somewhere - Linode's are great. They all come with dedicated IP addresses.
4) Farm it out - let Google handle it for you.
• I've run my own mail server since the .UUCP domain and comp.mail.maps. For a very long time now, we have not been accepting MUA->MTA mail on port 25. We have been using port 587 for MUA->MTA. MTA->MTA is port 25 and has been for a very long time. However, you don't try to connect to anyone else's port 25 from your cable or DSL modem unless you have setup some sort of non-home internet access and signed an AUP... Even then, chances are your cableco or telco will insist you relay through their mai
• They are cheap, allow you full control over your RDNS, and will solve your problems.
• Unless you have people breaking down your doors, shooting anyone who gets in their way and lobbing a grenade into your server room then no, there isn't a "war" against small email servers.
• by toby (759)
Works for me.
• Here I am, reading between the lines, again.
The laws that apply to government having access to ISPs, to access email records, are very different then the laws that apply to your own server. It is MUCH harder to get emails, legally, from you directly (or, more specifically, your server), primarily because you probably wouldn't just hand them over like ISPs do. Secondary is the fact that they often don't want us to KNOW we are being scrutinized and a subpoena pretty much blows that particular fish out of the
• My ISP blocks port 25 and I'm glad they do because it stops botted machines from setting up spam servers. The point is that if I want port 25 opened, all I have to do is ask - Have you asked Verizon and Comcast to open the port?
• I use a small local ISP. When my server got blocked because it was in a block of IPs normally assigned as dynamic, I called them, explained the situation, and they assigned me a fixed IP from another block.
Sure, I could save $20/month by using comcast, but I talk to a real engineer who sits at a desk 60 miles from me. What's more they actually understand what I'm talking about. When one of their routers took a dump, and I traced my failure to it, they took my traceroutes seriously and dispatched a crew.
Y
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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2,224,262,765,282,631,400
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Openwall GNU/*/Linux - a small security-enhanced Linux distro for servers
[<prev] [next>] [<thread-prev] [thread-next>] [day] [month] [year] [list]
Date: Mon, 25 Jun 2012 17:02:44 -0700
From: Bit Weasil <[email protected]>
To: Solar Designer <[email protected]>
Cc: [email protected]
Subject: Re: OpenCL kernel max running time vs. "ASIC hang"
> I understand that reducing the amount of parallelism in a kernel
> invocation slows things down, but why not reduce the amount of work per
> kernel invocation by other means - specifically, in your example, why
> not reduce the number of SHA-1 iterations per kernel invocation? We may
> invoke the kernel more than once from one crypt_all() call,
> sequentially. For example, the 256k may be achieved by 256 invocations
> of a kernel doing 1k iterations. This would bring the 9 seconds down to
> 35 ms per kernel invocation. Perhaps the intermediate results can even
> stay in the GPU between those invocations.
>
This is what I do with my rainbow table generation (which is, in many
cases, functionally the same as a "slow" kernel). I take an initial
password, hash/reduce it many times (say, 200 000 for my current tables),
and store the end result. I do this with tunable kernel execution times
(this is the task that was getting ASIC hangs until I adjusted it down).
I simply store the intermediate values in the GPU global memory. The
access (if done sanely) is coalesced, and is roughly speaking a "best case"
memory access pattern for both the load and the store. I'm using a high
resolution timer class to dynamically adjust the work done per kernel
invocation. If I'm below 90% or above 110% of my target time, I adjust the
steps per invocation for the next call. It seems to work nicely, and also
properly handles conditions like an overheating GPU that throttles, or
someone gaming in the background. The only caution I have with this
approach is that it is possible to get 0 steps per invocation in certain
conditions, and this will not self correct - the task does not accomplish
anything. You need a lower bound so that it can correct for a temporary
glitch.
It shouldn't be difficult to take a single execution kernel and break it
into multiple steps. If you would like a starting point, the Cryptohaze
tools have this done for all the GPU kernels - feel free to take a look
around.
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Peripheral Nerve Injury Is Associated with Chronic, Reversible Changes in Global DNA Methylation in the Mouse Prefrontal Cortex
• Maral Tajerian ,
Contributed equally to this work with: Maral Tajerian, Sebastian Alvarado
Affiliations: Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
• Sebastian Alvarado ,
Contributed equally to this work with: Maral Tajerian, Sebastian Alvarado
Affiliations: Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Sackler Program for Epigenetics and Psychobiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
• Magali Millecamps,
Affiliations: Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
• Pascal Vachon,
Affiliation: University of Montreal, Department of Veterinary Biomedicine, St-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
• Cecilia Crosby,
Affiliations: Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Sackler Program for Epigenetics and Psychobiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
• M. Catherine Bushnell,
Affiliations: Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Department of Anesthesiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
• Moshe Szyf ,
[email protected] (MS); [email protected] (LS)
Affiliations: Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Sackler Program for Epigenetics and Psychobiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
• Laura S. Stone
[email protected] (MS); [email protected] (LS)
Affiliations: Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Department of Anesthesiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Peripheral Nerve Injury Is Associated with Chronic, Reversible Changes in Global DNA Methylation in the Mouse Prefrontal Cortex
• Maral Tajerian,
• Sebastian Alvarado,
• Magali Millecamps,
• Pascal Vachon,
• Cecilia Crosby,
• M. Catherine Bushnell,
• Moshe Szyf,
• Laura S. Stone
PLOS
x
Abstract
Changes in brain structure and cortical function are associated with many chronic pain conditions including low back pain and fibromyalgia. The magnitude of these changes correlates with the duration and/or the intensity of chronic pain. Most studies report changes in common areas involved in pain modulation, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC), and pain-related pathological changes in the PFC can be reversed with effective treatment. While the mechanisms underlying these changes are unknown, they must be dynamically regulated. Epigenetic modulation of gene expression in response to experience and environment is reversible and dynamic. Epigenetic modulation by DNA methylation is associated with abnormal behavior and pathological gene expression in the central nervous system. DNA methylation might also be involved in mediating the pathologies associated with chronic pain in the brain. We therefore tested a) whether alterations in DNA methylation are found in the brain long after chronic neuropathic pain is induced in the periphery using the spared nerve injury modal and b) whether these injury-associated changes are reversible by interventions that reverse the pathologies associated with chronic pain. Six months following peripheral nerve injury, abnormal sensory thresholds and increased anxiety were accompanied by decreased global methylation in the PFC and the amygdala but not in the visual cortex or the thalamus. Environmental enrichment attenuated nerve injury-induced hypersensitivity and reversed the changes in global PFC methylation. Furthermore, global PFC methylation correlated with mechanical and thermal sensitivity in neuropathic mice. In summary, induction of chronic pain by peripheral nerve injury is associated with epigenetic changes in the brain. These changes are detected long after the original injury, at a long distance from the site of injury and are reversible with environmental manipulation. Changes in brain structure and cortical function that are associated with chronic pain conditions may therefore be mediated by epigenetic mechanisms.
Introduction
Chronic pain is associated with changes in brain structure and function. Multiple studies have now reported decreased brain grey matter and abnormal cortical function associated with chronic pain, and the magnitude of these changes may be related to the duration and the intensity of chronic pain. While changes in some brain regions are associated with specific pain conditions, many studies report changes in common areas involved in pain modulation, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC) (for reviews see [1], [2]. Interestingly, the PFC has also been implicated in depression and anxiety, both of which are co-morbid with chronic pain.
Chronic pain induces and actively maintains pathological changes in the PFC: The induction of nerve injury in normal rats results in the development of hypersensitivity to sensory stimuli and in decreased grey matter in the PFC several months post-injury [3]. Furthermore, reducing chronic pain in humans reverses pain-related changes in PFC structure and function [4], [5]. However, the mechanisms underlying chronic pain-induced neuroplasticity are currently not understood.
Epigenetic modulation of gene expression in response to experience and environmental changes is both dynamic and reversible. Covalent modification of DNA by methylation is a critical epigenetic mechanism resulting in altered gene expression. The recognition of the role of DNA methylation in human disease started in oncology but now extents to other disciplines including neurological disorders, and modulation by DNA methylation is associated with abnormal behavior and pathological gene expression in the central nervous system (CNS). For example, adverse environments early in life result in stable pathological changes in methylation and gene function in the adult [6], [7], [8], [9], [10] that are reversible with epigenetic drugs [11], [12]. A plausible working hypothesis is that long-term changes in DNA methylation in the brain embed signals from transient injury or other exposures to alter genome function in the brain, resulting in either the chronification of pain or contributing to the co-morbid pathologies associated with chronic pain. If this hypothesis is correct, then DNA methylation changes in the brain should be detectable long after exposure to the initial peripheral injury that triggered the chronic pain.
The objectives of the current study were a) to determine if a peripheral nerve injury that triggers long-term, persistent behavioural signs of neuropathic pain and a decrease in grey matter in the PFC several months post-injury [4] also triggers region-specific changes in DNA methylation in the brain that can be detected long after the initial injury and b) to determine whether these changes are sensitive to an environmental manipulation that attenuates pain. The primary findings are a) 5–6 months following peripheral nerve injury, alterations in global DNA methylation are observed in the PFC and amydala but not in the visual cortex or thalamus, b) environmental enrichment reduces both behavioural signs of neuropathic pain and pathological changes in PFC global methylation, and c) PFC global methylation significantly correlates with the severity of mechanical and cold sensitivity. Long-term alterations in DNA methylation could therefore provide a molecular substrate for chronic pain-related alterations in the CNS, forming a “memory trace” for pain in the brain that can be targeted therapeutically.
Materials and Methods
Animals
Two cohorts of 8–10 week-old male CD1 mice (Charles River, St-Constant, QC, Canada) were used. Animals were housed in ventilated polycarbonate cages and received water and rodent diet (Teklad Rodent Diet 2020X) ad libitum.
Animals in the standard environment (Figures 1&2) were housed in groups of 3–4 with a cardboard hut and cotton nesting material. In contrast, the enriched environment consisted of three mice/cage, a home cage running wheel mounted on a plastic hut (Mouse Igloo® with Fast-Trac running wheel, http://www.bio-serv.com), and marbles. In the impoverished environment, each animal was housed singly in an individual cage in the absence of a running wheel, marbles or any other forms of enrichment. All other factors including diet, bedding, access to water and light-dark cycle were identical.
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Figure 1. Behavioral Signs of Neuropathic Pain Six Months following Nerve Injury.
Nerve injured mice show a decrease in mechanical thresholds (A) and an increase in acetone-evoked behaviors, indicative of cold sensitivity (B) on the hindpaw, measured by the von Frey filament test and the acetone tests, respectively. In addition, these mice show signs of motor dysfunction, measured by the rotarod assay (C). In the open field assay (D), neuropathic mice do not differ from control mice in overall levels of spontaneous activity, measured by the number of peripheral squares covered in the open field (e). However, they spent less time spent in the central square of the open field, indicative of anxiety-like behavior (f). * = p<0.05, *** = p<0.0001, n = 10/group, error bars indicate S.E.M.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055259.g001
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Figure 2. Global Methylation in the CNS Six Months following Nerve Injury.
Nerve injured mice show a decrease in global methylation in the PFC (a) and amygdala (b) six months after the induction of peripheral neuropathy. No such changes were observed in the thalamus (c) or visual cortex (d). *** = p<0.0001, n = 8–10/group, error bars indicate S.E.M.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055259.g002
All experiments were approved by the Animal Care Committee at McGill University, and conformed to the ethical guidelines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care and the guidelines of the Committee for Research and Ethical Issues of the International Association for the Study of Pain published in PAIN, 16 (1983) 109–110. All surgery was performed under isoflurane anesthesia, and all efforts were made to minimize suffering.
Induction of Nerve Injury
Neuropathy was induced using the spared nerve injury model. Under deep anesthesia, an incision was made on the lateral surface of the thigh through the muscle, exposing the three terminal branches of the sciatic nerve: the sural, common peroneal and tibial nerves. The common peroneal and the tibial nerves were tightly ligated with 6.0 silk (Ethicon) and sectioned distal to the ligation. The sural nerve was left intact. Sham surgery involved exposing the nerve without damaging it [13].
Behavioral Assessment
All animals underwent baseline behavioral assessments immediately prior to surgery and no differences were observed between groups (data not shown). The first cohort were then re-assessed six months following nerve injury or sham surgery control (Figures 1 and 2). In the environmental study (Figures 3 and 4), the presence of nerve injury-induced hypersensitivity was confirmed three months following surgery when the environmental manipulations were implemented and again two months after environmental change.
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Figure 3. Environmental Enrichment Reverses Nerve Injury-Induced Neuropathic Pain and Pathological Changes in DNA Methylation in the Prefrontal Cortex.
Three months following nerve injury and the establishment of chronic neuropathic pain, mice were subjected to an enriched or an impoverished environment for an additional two months. Environmental enrichment resulted in decreases in mechanical (A) and cold sensitivity (B) in nerve-injured animals towards control values. (C) These changes in cutaneous hypersensitivity following environmental enrichment were accompanied by reversal of the nerve injury-induced decreases in global methylation in the impoverished group such that global methylation was no longer different from control values (1-way ANOVA, F(3,21) = 4.545, p = 0.013, tukeys multiple comparison test). * = p<0.05, ** = p<0.01,*** = p<0.001; control, enriched vs. impoverished or injured, enriched vs. impoverished; n = 5–8/group, error bars indicate S.E.M.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055259.g003
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Figure 4. Global Methylation in the Prefrontal Cortex Correlates with the Magnitude of Nerve Injury-Induced Hypersensitivity.
Correlation analysis was performed on the data from Figure 3. Significant correlations were observed between % global methylation and hypersensitivity to mechanical (a) and cold stimuli (b), in neuropathic but not control mice. * = p<0.05, ** = p<0.01.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055259.g004
Mechanical Sensitivity.
Calibrated monofilaments (Stoelting Co., Wood Dale, IL) were applied to the plantar surface of the hindpaw and the 50% threshold to withdraw (grams) was calculated as previously described [14]. The stimulus intensity ranged from 0.008 g to 4 g.
Cold Sensitivity.
A modified version of the acetone drop test [15] was used: total duration of acetone-evoked behaviors (flinching, licking or biting) was measured for 1 minute after acetone (∼25 µl) was applied to the plantar surface of the hindpaw with the aid of a blunt needle attached to a syringe.
Motor Function.
The accelerating rotarod assay was used (IITC Life Science Inc., Woodland Hills, CA) with the mouse adapter [16]. The task includes a speed ramp from 0 to 30 rpm over 60 s, followed by an additional 240 s at the maximal speed.
Overall Activity.
Mice were individually placed individually into the centre of a transparent open field (26×26 cm2) in a quiet room illuminated with white light and their spontaneous behavior was videotaped. The floor of the apparatus was equally divided into nine squares. The total number of squares visited in a 5 minute period was assessed. An animal must fully enter the square for it to be considered as visited. Since each square is similar in size to an average mouse (∼8–10 cm), the number of squares visited serves as a proxy measure for general motor activity.
Anxiety-like behavior.
The same open field was used with the primary measure being the time spent in the central square during the 5 minute task [17].
Environmental Manipulation
Three months after injury or sham surgery, the presence of neuropathic pain was confirmed and mice were randomly assigned to one of four groups: injured with enriched environment, injured with impoverished environment, sham with enriched environment, sham with impoverished environment. The standard, enriched and impoverished environments are described above. Mice were then re-tested 2 months following environmental manipulation and tissue was collected.
Tissue Extraction
In the first study (Figures 1 and 2), animals were sacrificed 6 months after nerve injury or sham surgery by decapitation following isoflurane anesthesia. In the enrichment experiment (Figures 3 and 4), animals were sacrificed 5 months after nerve injury or sham, of which the final 2 months were spent in enriched or impoverished environments. Anatomical regions were defined according to the stereotaxic coordinates (rostral–caudal, medial–lateral and dorsal–ventral from bregma) by Paxinos and Franklin [18]. The prefrontal cortex (right and left; +1 to +3, −1 to +1, 0 to −2.5), amygdala (right and left; −1 to −3, ±4 to ±1.5, −4 to −6), thalamus (0 to −3, −2 to + 2, −2.5 to −4.25), and visual cortex (right and left; −2 to −4, −3 to +3, 0 to 2) were extracted, frozen on dry ice and stored at −80 C until use.
DNA Extraction
Tissue was homogenized and incubated in DNA extraction buffer (500 µl) containing proteinase K (20 µl; 20 mg/ml; Roche, Basel, Switzerland) at 50°C for 12 h. Samples were treated with RNAase A (50 U/mg; 30 min; Roche) and phenol: chloroform (1∶1) added. After phase separation, ethanol (95%) was added to precipitate the DNA. The DNA pellet was then washed and redissolved in ddH2O.
Luminometric Methylation Assay (LUMA)
LUMA is a high throughput assay used to determine genomic global DNA methylation. The LUMA method used in our study is a modification described by Karimi et al. [19], [20]. LUMA involves the digestion of genomic DNA by methylation sensitive (HPAII) or insensitive (MSPI) restriction enzymes in combination with an internal control restriction enzyme (EcoRI) to normalize the DNA input. Both HpaII and MspI restriction enzymes recognize and cleave 5′-CCGG-3′ sequences producing 5′-CG overhangs, whereas EcoRI recognizes and cleaves 5′-GAATTC-3′ sequences and produces 5′-AATT overhangs. The extent of cleavage is determined by a bioluminetric polymerase extension assay based on a four-step pyrosequencing reaction.
Samples were incubated (37°C, 4 h) and then heat inactivated (80°C, 20 min). Digested genomic DNA (15 µl) was mixed with pyrosequencing annealing buffer (15 µl; Qiagen, Toronto, ON, Canada). Samples were transferred to 24-well pyrosequencing plates for sequencing (PyroMark 24; Biotage, Uppsala, Sweden). The nucleotide dispensation order used was based on Pilsner et al. [21]. Peak heights for C and A represent the HpaII and MspI cuts (methylation) and EcoRI (input DNA), respectively. The formula to calculate % genomic methylation is: 1-[(HpaII (C)/EcoRI (A)/MspI (C)/EcoRI (A)]×100. All samples were run in triplicate.
Statistical Analysis
All data are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM). Comparisons between injured and control groups (Figures 1 and 2) or between enriched vs. impoverished (Figures 3A,B) were performed using 2-tailed, unpaired student's t-test. The data in Figure 3C was analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukeys test for multiple comparisons. Significance was set at P<0.05. Welch's correction was used when the assumption of equal variances was not met. The degree of co-variation between mechanical or cold sensitivity and global methylation was determined by calculating Pearson's coefficient since our data followed a Gaussian distribution. Statistical analysis was undertaken using Prism (GraphPad Software Inc, San Diego, California).
Results
Behavioral signs of neuropathic pain, motor impairment and anxiety six months following peripheral nerve injury
Chronic, persistent changes in cutaneous sensitivity to both mechanical and cold stimuli were detected six months following nerve injury. Injured mice displayed decreased mechanical thresholds (Figure 1A) and increased acetone-evoked behaviors (Figure 1B). Animals with nerve injury were significantly impaired in motor capacity in the rotarod assay (Figure 1C).
Animals with neuropathy exhibited signs of anxiety in the open field assay six months after injury (Figure 1D). Despite the fact that injured animals visited the same number of peripheral squares as control animals (Figure 1E), they spent significantly less time in the central square compared to control mice (Figure 1F).
Nerve injury was associated with decreased global methylation in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, but not the thalamus or visual cortex, six months following injury
Peripheral nerve injury resulted in a decrease in global methylation in the prefrontal cortex (Figure 2A) and the amygdala (Figure 2B) that was detected 6 months after injury. No significant changes were observed in the thalamus (Figure 2C) or visual cortex (Figure 2D). Since there were no significant differences in global methylation between right and left brain structures, the results reported here are the average of the two sides.
Environmental enrichment reverses nerve injury-induced chronic pain and abnormal global methylation in the prefrontal cortex
Three months after peripheral nerve injury, a second set of mice were removed from standard housing and placed in either an enriched or an impoverished environment for two additional months. The enriched environment was associated with decreased nerve injury-induced hypersensitivity to mechanical and cold stimuli compared to the impoverished environment (Figures 3A,B). This was accompanied by the recovery of nerve injury-induced reductions in global methylation in the PFC to normal, control levels (Figure 3C).
Correlation between global methylation in the prefrontal cortex and hypersensitivity to cutaneous stimuli
Analysis of the data from Figure 3 revealed significant correlations between the magnitude of both mechanical (Figure 4A) and cold (Figure 4B) hypersensitivity and global methylation in the PFC in injured, but not in control animals. Specifically, following environmental manipulation, nerve-injured animals with higher global % methylation in the PFC had reduced hypersensitivity to mechanical and thermal stimuli.
Discussion
DNA Methylation and Chronic Neuropathic Pain
Epigenetic mechanisms triggered by injury have been hypothesized to participate in mediating the lasting changes in the CNS associated with chronic pain [22]. To date, most of the work related to chronic pain has focused on the role of histone acetylation/deacetylation [23], mainly using pharmacological tools [24], [25], [26], [27], with few reports of changes in DNA methylation in chronic pain conditions [28], [29], [30], [31]. In this study, a mouse model of neuropathic pain following peripheral nerve injury was used to test the hypothesis that ongoing, chronic painful neuropathy induces changes in global DNA methylation in the brain.
Our data show decreases in global DNA methylation in the PFC and amygdala six months following a peripheral nerve injury in the hindlimb. This is consistent with many of the comorbidities that develop when pain has transitioned from being acute to chronic, such as chronic-pain associated depression [32]. Furthermore, these global changes were region-specific; similar effects were not observed in the thalamus or the visual cortex, even though the former receives direct input from nociceptive neurons. It is important to note that regions that did not show global changes may still undergo changes in DNA methylation at the individual gene level that are not detectable by a global methylation assay such as the LUMA. However, the fact that alterations were observed in the PFC and amygdala shows a strong link between nerve injury-induced hypersensitivity and changes in DNA methylation in the brain and provides a potential link between injury, chronic pain and co-morbidities such as cognitive dysfunction, depression and anxiety.
The magnitude of the nerve injury-associated changes in global methylation in the PFC from 60% to 48% suggests that the changes are broad and affect wide parts of the genome. It is estimated that the mouse genome contains ∼20 million CpG sites, the targets for DNA methylation. The LUMA assay used in this study is sensitive to ∼1.5 million of these sites. Therefore, a decrease of 12% in this assay corresponds to a minimum estimated demethylation of ∼180,000 CpG sites following nerve injury, a number predicted to alter the expression of hundreds of individual genes [33].
Global methylation is an indicator of the overall state of the DNA methylation machinery and has long-range consequences on genome function and organization [34], [35], [36]. Recent data suggests that the landscape of altered DNA methylation in other pathologies such as cancer spans thousands of genes [37] and intergenic regions [38]. Programming of DNA methylation encompasses both global changes in genome methylation and gene-specific changes that target discreet regulatory regions, thus affecting gene expression. Changes in global DNA methylation state affect high-level organization of genome function [39]. These changes produce lasting effects on the regulation of the transcriptome and higher order chromatin folding [40] and are capable of affecting many aspects of cell function. The population of methylated CpG sites in gene promoters and known regulatory regions constitutes only a small fraction of global DNA methylation. Given the magnitude of the pathological changes in DNA methylation observed in this study, they must therefore also involve regions in the genome beyond individual gene promoters and gene regulatory sequences. Indeed, demethylation/methylation of all known promoters and regulatory regions in the genome would in itself not have a significant impact on global DNA methylation.
Dynamic Mechanisms Mediating Chronic Pain
In this study, the epigenetic changes were attenuated by a behavioral intervention. Environmental enrichment reversed nerve injury-related reductions in global DNA methylation in the PFC and reduced hypersensitivity to mechanical and cold stimuli. Furthermore, the % global PFC methylation co-varied with the severity of neuropathic pain. It is currently unclear why similar correlations were not observed in the uninjured, control mice. While it is also not clear whether it is the enrichment itself or the pain attenuation that is mediating the reversal of hypo-methylation in the PFC, data from the enrichment experiment nonetheless suggests that the methylation changes in the brain are dynamic and reversible by a behavioral intervention. Regardless, the particularly relevant since, in human patients with low back pain, both pain duration and intensity has been related to reduced grey matter in the PFC [41], and the magnitude of pain reduction following treatment correlated with corresponding increases in the thickness and normalization of functional activity in the PFC [4]. We therefore speculate that the regulation of global methylation such as described here may contribute to the dynamic changes in cortical structure and function observed in human chronic pain patients.
Distance from the Time and Site of Injury
The main finding emphasized in this manuscript is the long-range effects of peripheral nerve injury on the mouse methylome. Equally interesting is the observation that these methylation changes occur at a site distant from the original injury. While epigenetic changes have been reported in the dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord following persistent pain states [30], [31], here we focused on higher-order processing centers in the brain. Interestingly, in the study by Wang et al., decreasing global DNA methylation in the spinal cord resulted in attenuation of pain symptoms in the first two weeks following chronic constriction of the sciatic nerve in rats; this is the opposite of what we would predict in the PFC [30]. Thus, the directionality and consequences of changes in global DNA methylation in chronic pain may be region-specific (spinal vs. supraspinal), species-specific (rat vs. mouse), may vary by type of injury or may vary as a function of chronicity (2 weeks vs. 6 months). Each of these possible explanations has potential clinical implications, additional studies are needed to further explore this discrepancy.
Pain is more than mere nociception; according to the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP), pain is defined as “…an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage” [42]. It is therefore crucial that we study the effects of chronic pain in areas that are involved in perception and emotional processing, such as the PFC and amygdala. Our data draws attention to the nature of chronic pain as a complex phenomenon: it is associated with higher order behavioral co-morbidities beyond changes in nociceptive thresholds, and it encompass a wide range of conditions that make chronic pain a disease that is difficult to understand and to treat.
Limitations and Future Directions
The current data is consistent with the working hypothesis that DNA methylation is involved in chronic pain: a peripheral injury that leads to chronic pain triggers changes in global DNA methylation. However, it does not define a causal relationship between DNA methylation in the brain and chronic pain or its associated pathologies nor does it establish a relationship between these changes in DNA methylation and changes in gene expression. Future studies could address the causal relationships by evaluating the effects of pharmacological or environmental modulation of DNA methylation on pain threshold.
Although our data shows that environmental enrichment returned nerve injury-related changes in global DNA methylation to control levels, it is possible that a certain populations of individual gene promoters maintained their differentially methylated state. Future studies incorporating comprehensive, high throughput analysis of changes in DNA methylation and their effect on the expression of individual genes in chronic pain conditions are needed. Such studies are currently underway in our laboratory.
Our study does not distinguish between the effects of nerve injury from those of ongoing chronic pain and its comorbidities. It is possible that the observed supraspinal changes are due to other effects of the nerve injury itself such as motor impairment instead of being a consequence of living with chronic pain. Finally, the current study does not examine the time-course of global methylation changes, instead focusing on the long-term effects of peripheral neuropathy on the brain. Further studies are needed to determine how long after nerve injury changes in global DNA methylation develop and if they contribute to or are the result of pain chronification.
Our data is consistent with two alternative but not mutually exclusive hypotheses regarding the involvement of DNA methylation in chronic pain. First, DNA methylation might mediate the effects of peripheral nerve injury on chronic pain by altering epigenetic programming in the brain and inducing the central phenotypes associated with chronic pain. Second, chronic pain might induce the DNA methylation changes, which in turn trigger the downstream pathologies that accompany chronic pain. It is also possible that DNA methylation is involved in both processes. These questions need to be addressed in future studies. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the transition from transient injury to chronic pain as well as the mechanisms mediating the impact of chronic pain on mental and physical health are questions of prime significance. Our study shows that DNA methylation is a plausible mediator of these mechanisms.
Conclusions
Epigenetic modifications are at the interface between environment and genetics, creating a mechanism by which life experiences lead to long-lasting changes in gene expression. Here we show that the induction of peripheral nerve injury has an impact on the brain in the form of decreased DNA methylation in the PFC and amygdala 5–6 months following initial injury. In addition, these pathological changes can be attenuated with environmental enrichment, an intervention that ameliorates neuropathic pain in these animals. Furthermore, global methylation in the PFC correlates to symptom severity. Abnormal DNA methylation in the PFC may therefore provide a molecular substrate for pain-related dysfunction in brain structure and function. Targeting of these changes represents a potential novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of chronic pain. The implications of epigenetic involvement in chronic pain are wide reaching and may alter the way we think about pain diagnosis, research and treatment.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: MT SA MM PV MCB MS LSS. Performed the experiments: MT SA MM PV CC. Analyzed the data: MT SA MM MS LSS. Wrote the paper: MT MS LSS.
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January 7, 2022
Three Days To Bettering The best way You Minecraft Server Hosting
However a relatively new providing from Windows Azure is IaaS - Infrastructure as a Service - which includes virtual machine internet hosting. Being a Microsoft Home windows Azure Insider, it naturally occurred to me that an infrastructure optimal for this kind of shared entry is Home windows Azure. Home windows Azure has numerous capabilities, including shared host roles, storage, entry management, and what is generally referred to as PaaS - Platform as a Service. Utilizing the forge table, you'll be able to improve any diamond armor set merchandise or instrument, together with the diamond sword. On the Windows release, anyone can play with players on other devices including Xbox, Android, IOS and the Nintendo Swap in June. Studying how to create a Minecraft server on Raspberry Pi provides you with a world that you could entry from any machine operating Minecraft, except, curiously, MinecraftPi. For those who don’t have a screaming-quick internet connection, or bandwidth limitations on your connection, you possibly can really be setting up an unusable server. Memory Split. Change the setting to 16MB. This can free more memory assets for the server. The Raspberry Pi four is offered in different reminiscence configurations all the way up to eight GB.
It's best to now see drop-down menus accessible regarding memory. Now the query may pop up on your thoughts why do we want a free Minecraft server hosting games like digital Lego? Now FigurePrints is recreating Minecraft worlds. Of course what comes next is “Dad, can my associates hook up with my Minecraft server? You'll be able to spin it down when you are finished. This can be set to “true” or “false”, and is used to manage the flexibility of all gamers on the server to make use of cheat commands. All of the above, when used with a distant SSH connection, will allow you to arrange a Minecraft server on your Raspberry Pi. You should use wireless networking, however a quicker connection means superior server provision and higher in-game performance. For the Pi 3, definitely don't attempt to host more than 10. When you plan to put in Minecraft server on Raspberry Pi 4, you can host extra players relying on the choice of RAM. Mineplex is occupied by tons of of gamers each time. If you happen to intend to run a trial and there isn't any possibility of more variety of gamers becoming a member of the server then you can at all times choose from fashionable Linux VPS internet hosting plans as they are amongst essentially the most lightweight options.
You can get that right here. Ought to you might have any more questions about this, we have now a video tutorial which it's possible you'll take a look at right here. The more I believe about this, although, the extra I like the thought. Though earlier Pi models can be utilized for this, the results aren't as good. ealatorre AHH, lastly, an excellent cause to get going with Azure VM's! One really good one is Minecraft Servers. So, versions of Minecraft on a Home windows Pc, recreation console, Android, iOS, and Amazon Fire tablets and Television units will work with this server. As such, in case you have a number of devices on your local community, these could all entry the Minecraft server. Subsequent, configure the Raspberry Pi OS environment for working the Minecraft server. You could possibly take a look at Block Story, which is the right mix of Minecraft with an RPG. That wasn't too tough, and once more dozens of tutorials are on the market to help stroll you thru the process. The server has an IP handle, however it is only given out to people who have been invited to the server. The site has since expanded to turn into a place the place individuals share cooking classes, stream journey experiences and simply chat, although gaming remains a huge draw.
Note that the system spec of the Raspberry Pi means that you will not have the ability to host too many people. They've created a scenario wherein publishers can outsource QA testing to the individuals who care most about their titles and force these individuals to pay for the privilege. You can get a SSD setup on a Pi for less than most Micro SD cards cost. 1 hottest SSD among the many Pi group! When choosing ElixirNode as your Minecraft server hosting provider, you don't simply get the most effective Minecraft server hosting attainable, you also get to affix our tightly-knit neighborhood of Minecraft server owners. This is a good starter server for younger players. Loads of players see caves as a boring area in the previous model, that would simply be improved in new update. Players in the world will not must re-enter their Join Code, however any new players must use the new Be part of Code. All proper, let's get to the large criticism that commenters appear to have about Trove, which is its similar appearance to Cube World. In brief, you may want the principle Minecraft open world game from Mojang.
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• Masahiro Yamada's avatar
flash: complete CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH move with renaming · e856bdcf
Masahiro Yamada authored
We repeated partial moves for CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH, but this is
not completed. Finish this work by the tool.
During this move, let's rename it to CONFIG_MTD_NOR_FLASH.
Actually, we have more instances of "#ifndef CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH"
than those of "#ifdef CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH". Flipping the logic will
make the code more readable. Besides, negative meaning symbols do
not fit in obj-$(CONFIG_...) style Makefiles.
This commit was created as follows:
[1] Edit "default n" to "default y" in the config entry in
common/Kconfig.
[2] Run "tools/moveconfig.py -y -r HEAD SYS_NO_FLASH"
[3] Rename the instances in defconfigs by the following:
find . -path './configs/*_defconfig' | xargs sed -i \
-e '/CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH=y/d' \
-e 's/# CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH is not set/CONFIG_MTD_NOR_FLASH=y/'
[4] Change the conditionals by the following:
find . -name '*.[ch]' | xargs sed -i \
-e 's/ifndef CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH/ifdef CONFIG_MTD_NOR_FLASH/' \
-e 's/ifdef CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH/ifndef CONFIG_MTD_NOR_FLASH/' \
-e 's/!defined(CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH)/defined(CONFIG_MTD_NOR_FLASH)/' \
-e 's/defined(CONFIG_SYS_NO_FLASH)/!defined(CONFIG_MTD_NOR_FLASH)/'
[5] Modify the following manually
- Rename the rest of instances
- Remove the description from README
- Create the new Kconfig entry in drivers/mtd/Kconfig
- Remove the old Kconfig entry from common/Kconfig
- Remove the garbage comments from include/configs/*.h
Signed-off-by: default avatarMasahiro Yamada <[email protected]>
e856bdcf
M5253DEMO_defconfig 279 Bytes
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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1,913,214,208,830,301,200
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Click Here to Start Increasing Your Metabolism and Losing Weight
Check
Waters Powerful Role in Healthy Brain Function
Are you worried about losing your memory? Learn why drinking fresh and pure water is a natural way to maintain healthy brain function throughout your life.
Waters Role in Functional Brain Function
Water plays a very important role in the diet and function of your body. Many parts of your brain draw a lot of their energy from water.
Water must be brought into your body in a natural, natural way, maximizing your weight in ounces every day.
Water is essential for energy production in cells and in your overall metabolism, and neurotransmission. Nerve transmission is highly dependent on water. A small stream of water, or a micro-stream runs along the length of your nerves. This stream applies neurotransmitters along the microtubules to the nerve endings.
When your body is dehydrated, nerve transmission is compromised and brain function decreases. Chronic nerve pain can only be the end result of chronic dehydration.
Many chronic and painful conditions, including arthritis and fibromyalgia, are often significantly reduced after adequate rehydration.
Another important consideration is that water actually holds your body cells together. Water keeps the cell membranes together by forming hydronium ions that make water sticky and help bind your cells together. This gives your cells a higher viscosity that helps increase the efficiency of proteins and enzymes.
In dehydrated cells, their metabolism is greatly reduced. Dehydration has a dramatic effect especially on sugar metabolism, immune system and detoxification. Dehydration greatly affects the movement of the lymph through the body and causes the lymph system to clog up and break down.
From the cellular point of view, the delivery of nutrients through the cell wall is done by water. Many deficiencies are often specific dehydration problems.
Dehydration is an important producer of free radicals in your body and hydration effectively removes free radicals faster than most other therapies. Fully hydrated body can reduce your need for antioxidant supplements.
Lung dehydration is considered an important factor in respiratory disease. Sometimes the most dramatic results can be found in asthma and chronic bronchitis with simple rehydration.
Dehydration is a major source of stress in the body and changes the amino acid balance. This can cause DNA damage during cell division which can lead to many diseases such as cancer and other cell mutation problems.
Water is an important energy conductor such as your meridian and chakra energy systems. When your body is dry, it's very difficult for energy-based therapies like acupunture, Reiki, Bowenwork® and BodyTalk (TM) to work.
Due to imbalances in the cellular environment many cells of the human body and brain tissue are dehydrated, despite drinking enough water. The BodyTalk system has specific procedures that address any underlying factors that may limit the absorption of water throughout your body.
------------------
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Recommended Topic Related To:
Robinul
"FDA is recommending health care professionals discontinue prescribing and dispensing prescription combination drug products that contain more than 325 milligrams (mg) of acetaminophen per tablet, capsule or other dosage unit. There are no"...
Robinul
Robinul Side Effects Center
Medical Editor: John P. Cunha, DO, FACOEP
Robinul Injection (glycopyrrolate) helps to control conditions such as peptic ulcers that involve excessive stomach acid production. The injectable form of this drug is also used to reduce saliva, nasal, lung, and stomach secretions and to help control heart rate during surgery. It is a synthetic anticholinergic agent. This medication is available in generic form. Common side effects include drowsiness, dizziness, weakness, blurred vision, dry eyes, dry mouth, constipation, or abdominal bloating.
Robinul injection is administered intramuscularly (IM) or intravenously (IV), under a physician's supervision. Dose depends on the condition being treated. Robinul may interact with amantadine, quinidine, antihistamines, decongestants, appetite suppressants, phenothiazines, or antidepressants. Tell your doctor all prescription and over-the-counter medications you use. During pregnancy, Robinul should be used only when prescribed. It is unknown if this drug passes into breast milk. Consult your doctor before breast-feeding.
Our Robinul Injection (glycopyrrolate) Side Effects Drug Center provides a comprehensive view of available drug information on the potential side effects when taking this medication.
This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.
What is Patient Information in Detail?
Easy-to-read and understand detailed drug information and pill images for the patient or caregiver from Cerner Multum.
Robinul in Detail - Patient Information: Side Effects
Get emergency medical help if you have any of these signs of an allergic reaction: hives; difficult breathing; swelling of your face, lips, tongue, or throat.
Stop using glycopyrrolate and call your doctor at once if you have a serious side effect such as:
• severe constipation, severe stomach pain and bloating;
• diarrhea (especially if you have a colostomy or ileostomy);
• feeling like you might pass out;
• feeling very thirsty or hot, being unable to urinate, heavy sweating, weak pulse, or hot and dry skin; or
• dry diapers, fussiness, or excessive crying in a child taking glycopyrrolate.
Less serious side effects may include:
• dry mouth;
• vomiting;
• mild constipation;
• stuffy nose, sinus pain; or
• flushing (warmth, redness, or tingly feeling).
This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.
Read the entire detailed patient monograph for Robinul (Glycopyrrolate) »
What is Patient Information Overview?
A concise overview of the drug for the patient or caregiver from First DataBank.
Robinul Overview - Patient Information: Side Effects
SIDE EFFECTS: Drowsiness, dizziness, weakness, blurred vision, dry eyes, dry mouth, constipation, or abdominal bloating may occur. If any of these effects persist or worsen, tell your doctor or pharmacist promptly.
To relieve dry mouth, suck (sugarless) hard candy or ice chips, chew (sugarless) gum, drink water, or use a saliva substitute. To relieve dry eyes, consult your pharmacist for artificial tears or other eye lubricants.
To prevent constipation, eat a diet adequate in fiber, drink plenty of water, and exercise. Consult your pharmacist for help in selecting a laxative (such as a stimulant type with stool softener).
Remember that your doctor has prescribed this medication because he or she has judged that the benefit to you is greater than the risk of side effects. Many people using this medication do not have serious side effects.
Tell your doctor immediately if any of these unlikely but serious side effects occur: decreased sweating, dry/hot/flushed skin, fast/irregular heartbeat, mental/mood changes (such as confusion, hallucinations, agitation, nervousness, unusual excitement), eye pain, vision changes, difficulty urinating, decreased sexual ability.
A very serious allergic reaction to this drug is rare. However, seek immediate medical attention if you notice any symptoms of a serious allergic reaction, including: rash, itching/swelling (especially of the face/tongue/throat), severe dizziness, trouble breathing.
This is not a complete list of possible side effects. If you notice other effects not listed above, contact your doctor or pharmacist.
In the US -
Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.
In Canada - Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to Health Canada at 1-866-234-2345.
Read the entire patient information overview for Robinul (Glycopyrrolate)»
What is Prescribing information?
The FDA package insert formatted in easy-to-find categories for health professionals and clinicians.
Robinul FDA Prescribing Information: Side Effects
(Adverse Reactions)
SIDE EFFECTS
Anticholinergics, including Robinul Injection (glycopyrrolate) , can produce certain effects, most of which are extensions of their pharmacologic actions. Adverse reactions may include xerostomia (dry mouth); urinary hesitancy and retention; blurred vision and photophobia due to mydriasis (dilation of the pupil); cycloplegia; increased ocular tension; tachycardia; palpitation; decreased sweating; loss of taste; headache; nervousness; drowsiness; weakness; dizziness; insomnia; nausea; vomiting; impotence; suppression of lactation; constipation; bloated feeling; severe allergic reactions including anaphylactic/anaphylactoid reactions; hypersensitivity; urticaria, pruritus, dry skin, and other dermal manifestations; some degree of mental confusion and/or excitement, especially in elderly persons.
In addition, the following adverse events have been reported from post-marketing experience with Robinul (glycopyrrolate) : malignant hyperthermia; cardiac arrhythmias (including bradycardia, ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation); cardiac arrest; hypertension; hypotension; seizures; and respiratory arrest. Post-marketing reports have included cases of heart block and QTc interval prolongation associated with the combined use of glycopyrrolate and an anticholinesterase. Injection site reactions including pruritus, edema, erythema, and pain have also been reported.
Robinul (glycopyrrolate) is chemically a quaternary ammonium compound; hence, its passage across lipid membranes, such as the blood-brain barrier is limited in contrast to atropine sulfate and scopolamine hydrobromide. For this reason the occurrence of CNS-related side effects is lower, in comparison to their incidence following administration of anticholinergics which are chemically tertiary amines that can cross this barrier readily.
Read the entire FDA prescribing information for Robinul (Glycopyrrolate) »
A A A
Robinul - User Reviews
Robinul User Reviews
Now you can gain knowledge and insight about a drug treatment with Patient Discussions.
Here is a collection of user reviews for the medication Robinul sorted by most helpful. Patient Discussions FAQs
Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration
You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit the FDA MedWatch website or call 1-800-FDA-1088.
Women's Health
Find out what women really need.
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Why the Buzz About H.264?
H.264 Technology: It’s the bitrate!
H.264 is getting so much attention because it can encode video with approximately 3 times fewer bits than comparable MPEG-2 encoders.
Because H.264 is up to twice as efficient as MPEG-4 Part 2 (natural video) encoding, it has recently been welcomed into the MPEG-4 standard as Part 10 – Advanced Video Coding. Many established encoder and decoder vendors are moving directly to h.264 and skipping the intermediate step of MPEG-4 Part 2.
H.264 TechnologyGoals & Approach of H.264
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) initiated the h.26L (for long term) effort in 1998 as a continuation of work following the MPEG-2 and h.263 standards. The overriding goal was to achieve a factor-of-2 reduction in bit rate compared to any competing standard.
Recall that MPEG-2 was optimized with specific focus on Standard and High Definition digital television services, which are delivered via circuit-switched head-end networks to dedicated satellite uplinks, cable infrastructure or terrestrial facilities. MPEG2’s ability to cope is being strained as the range of delivery media expands to include heterogeneous mobile networks, packet-switched IP networks, and multiple storage formats, and as the variety of services grows to include multimedia messaging, security, increased use of HDTV, and others. Thus, a second goal for h.264 was to accommodate a wider variety of bandwidth requirements, picture formats, and unfriendly network environments that throw high jitter, packet loss, and bandwidth instability into the mix.
The h.264 approach is a strictly evolutionary extension of the block-based encoding approach so well established in the MPEG and ITU standards. Key steps include:
• Use of Motion Estimation to support Inter-picture prediction for eliminating temporal redundancies
• Use of spatial correlation of data to provide Intra-picture prediction.
• Construction of residuals as the difference between predicted images and source images.
• Use of a discrete spatial transform and filtering to eliminate spatial redundancies in the residuals.
• Entropy coding of the transformed residual coefficients and of the supporting data such as motion vectors.
Major Features of H.264
Improved Inter-Prediction and Motion Estimation
First recall the limitations of motion estimation in MPEG-2, which searches reference pictures for a 16×16 set of pixels that closely matches the current macro block. The matching set of pixels must be completely within the reference picture. In contrast, H.264 provides:
• Fine-grained motion estimation. Temporal search seeks matching sub-macro blocks of variable size as small as 4×4, and finds the motion vector to _ pel resolution. Searches may also identify motion vectors associated with matching sub-macro blocks of 4×8, 8×4, 8×8, 8×16, 16×8, or the full 16×16. [In future, even finer 1/8 pel resolution will be supported.]
• Multiple reference frames. H.264 provides additional flexibility for frames to point to more than multiple frames – which may be any combination of past and future frames. This capability provides opportunities for more precise inter-prediction, but also improved robustness to lost picture data.
• Unrestricted motion search . Motion search allows for reference frames that may be partly outside the picture; missing data can be spatially predicted from boundary data. Users may choose to disable this feature by specifying a Restricted Motion search.
• Motion vector prediction. Where sufficient temporal correlation exists, motion vectors may be accurately predicted and only their residuals transmitted explicitly in the bitstream.
Such techniques not only provide for more accurate inter-prediction, but also help to partition and scale the bitstream with priority given to data that is more globally applicable. Thus, they not only improve compression but also resilience to errors and network instabilities.
Motion Compensation Accuracy
Improved Intra Spatial Prediction and Transform
Because “intra prediction” is concerned with only one picture at a time, it relies upon spatial rather than temporal correlations. As the algorithm works through a picture’s macro blocks in raster scan order, earlier results may be used to “predict” the downstream calculations. Then we need only transmit residuals as refinements to the predicted results.
H.264 performs intra prediction in the spatial domain (prior to the transform, and it is a key part of the approach. Even for an intra-picture, every block of data is predicted from its neighbors before being transformed and coefficients generated for inclusion in the bitstream.
• Coarse versus fine intra prediction. Intra prediction may be performed either on 4×4 blocks, or 16×16 macro blocks. The latter is more efficient for uniform areas of a picture.
• Direction Dependent Intra Modes. By doing intra prediction in the spatial domain (rather than in the transform domain), h.264 can employ prediction that is direction dependent, and thus can focus on the most highly correlated neighbors. For Intra 16×16 coding and Intra 4 x 4 coding, there are 9 and 4 directional modes, respectively.
• 4×4 transform of Residual Data. For initially supported profiles, residual data transforms are always performed for 4×4 blocks of data, and coefficients transmitted on this fine-grained basis.
• Variable block sizes for spatial transform*. Future profiles will allow transform of variable size blocks (4×8, 8×8, etc.) with the same level of flexibility as motion estimation blocks. This will provide more flexibility and further reduction of bitrate.
• Integer transforms. Efficiency in both computation and bitrate is gained by implementing the traditional Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) as an integer transform that requires no multiplications, except for a single normalization. It can also be inverted exactly without mismatch.
• Deblocking filter. To eliminate fine structure blockiness that might be aggravated by the smaller transform blocks, a context-sensitive deblocking filter smoothes out the internal edges. Its filter strength depends upon the prediction modes and relationship between the neighboring blocks. In addition to increasing signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), this technique significantly improves the subjective quality of the image for a given S/N.
Improved Algorithms for Encoding
Two alternative methods improve efficiency of the entropy coding process by selecting variable length codes depending upon context of the data being encoded.
• Context-Adaptive Variable Length Coding (CAVLC) employs multiple variable length codeword tables to encode transform coefficients, which consume the bulk of bandwidth. Based upon a priori statistics of already processed data, the best table is selected adaptively. For non-coefficient data, a simpler scheme is used that relies upon only a single table.
• Context-Adaptive Binary Arithmetic Coding (CABAC*) provides an extremely efficient encoding scheme when it is known that certain symbols are much more likely than others. Such dominant symbols may be encoded with extremely small bit/symbol ratios. The CABAC method continually updates frequency statistics of the incoming data and adaptively adjusts the algorithm in real-time. This method is an advanced option available in profiles beyond the baseline profile.
Techniques for Mitigation of Errors, Packet Losses, and Network Variability
Error containment and scalability
H.264 includes several other features that are useful in containing the impact of errors, and in enabling the use of scalable or multiple bit streams:
• Slice coding. Each picture is subdivided into one or more slices. The slice is given increased importance in H.264 as the basic spatial segment that is independent from its neighbors. Thus, errors or missing data from one slice cannot propagate to any other slice within the picture. This also increases flexibility to extend picture types (I, P, B) down to the level of “slice types.” Redundant slices are permitted.
• Data partitioning is supported to allow higher priority data (e.g., sequence headers) to be separated from lower priority data (e.g., B-picture transform coefficients).
• Flexible macro block ordering (FMO) can be used to scatter the bits associated with adjoining macro blocks more randomly throughout the bit stream. This reduces the chance that a packet loss will affect a large region and enables error concealment by ensuring that neighboring macro blocks will be available for prediction of a missing macro block.
• The Multiple Reference Frames that are used for improved motion estimation also allow for partial motion compensation for a P picture when one of its referenced frames is missing or corrupted.
SI and SP Pictures (or slices)*
MPEG-2 practice is to insert intra pictures (I) at regular intervals to contain errors that otherwise could propagate through the picture sequence indefinitely. In addition, intra-pictures provide a means for random access or fast-forward actions, because intra frames do not require any knowledge of other referenced frames. Similarly, regular I pictures would be necessary to switch promptly from between higher and lower bitrate streams – an important feature for accommodating the bandwidth variability in mobile networks. However, I pictures typically require far more bits than P pictures and thus are an inefficient means for addressing these two requirements.
H.264 introduces two new slice types, “Switching I Pictures” (SI) and “Switching P Pictures” (SP), which help address these needs with significantly reduced bit rate. Identical SP frames can be obtained even though different reference frames are used – thus, they can be substituted for I frames as temporal resynchronization points, but with significantly reduced bitrate. SP pictures rely upon the transformation and quantization of predicted inter blocks. Because SP pictures do not take full advantage of intra-prediction, at the cost of some bits they can be extended to SI pictures which do so.
Note that because slices are coded independently, switching slices (SI or SP) can be defined at that level.
Low Latency Feature
Arbitrary Slice Ordering (ASO) relaxes the constraint that all macro blocks must be sequenced in decoding order, and thus enhances flexibility for low-delay performance important in teleconferencing, surveillance and interactive Internet applications.
Simplified Profiles
H.264 is completely focused on efficient coding of natural video and does not directly address the object-oriented functionality, synthetic video, and other systems functionality in MPEG-4, which carries a very complex structure of over 50 profiles.
In contrast, H.264 is initially defined with only three profiles:
• Baseline Profile. A basic goal of H.264 was to provide a royalty-free baseline profile to encourage early application of the standard. The baseline profile consists most of the major features described above, with the exception of: B slices and weighted prediction; CABAC encoding; field coding; and SP & SI slices. Thus, the baseline profile is appropriate for many progressive scan applications such as video conferencing and video-over-IP, but not for interlaced television or multiple stream applications.
• Main Profile. Main profile contains all of the features in Baseline, except flexible macro block ordering (FMO), arbitrary slice order (ASO) and redundant slices. However, it adds field coding, B slices and weighted prediction, and CABAC entropy coding. This profile is appropriate for efficient coding of interlaced television applications where bit or packet error is not excessive, and where low latency is not a requirement.
• Extended Profile. This profile contains all features from the baseline profile and main profiles, except that CABAC is not supported. In addition, the Extended profile adds SP and SI for stream switching, and up to 8 slice groups. This profile is appropriate for server-based streaming applications where bit-rate scalability and error rate is very important. Security Applications and Mobile video services would be an example.
Where will H.264 have the biggest impact?
Any video application can benefit from a reduction in bandwidth requirements, but highest impact will involve applications where such reduction relieves a hard technical constraint, or which makes more cost-effective use of bandwidth as a limiting resource.
In addition, other h.264 features such error containment, error concealment, and efficient bitstream switching is especially useful for IP and wireless environments.
Squeeze More Services into a Broadcast Channel
Reduction in bandwidth requirements by factors of 2-3 provide cost savings for bandwidth-constrained services such as satellite and DVB-Terrestrial, or alternatively allow such providers to expand services at reduced incremental cost.
Facilitate High Quality Video Streaming over IP Networks
H.264 can produce very good quality, TV Quality streaming at less than 1Mbps (standard definition). This slips under 1 Mbps thresholds for xDSL and thus opens possibilities for new access methods for high quality, larger format video.
High Definition Transmission and Storage
Recall that MPEG-2 consumes 15-20 Mbps for High Definition video at suitable quality for broadcast or DVD. Use of h.264 will bring this down to about 8 Mbps, making it possible for bandwidth-strapped satellite service providers to fit 4 HD channels per QPSK channel.
Even more significant is that this reduction enables burning one HD movie onto a conventional DVD, thus avoiding the need for the industry to adapt a higher density (“blue laser”) DVD format.
Mobile Video Applications
3G Mobile networks present an unusual array of technical challenges that have driven many features in h.264. Applications include video conferencing, streaming video on demand, multimedia-messaging services, and low resolution broadcast. Some key issues, and h.264 tools for dealing with them, include:
• Low bandwidth (50 – 300 kbps) is the key issue. The expected trend is for 3G deployment to start with h.263 and move up to h.264 as it matures. An industry analyst points out “… 3G networks are only likely to offer 57.6kbit/s initially. As those bit rates increase, mobiles and networks will move to the new H.264 codec, which offers twice the performance of H.263. This should result in the same picture quality being achieved at half the bit rate.”
• Small devices with many formats; variability of available bandwidth. For streaming applications, these two separate issues can be addressed by providing multiple streams with different formats and bandwidths, and selecting the appropriate stream at run-time. H.264’s SP and SI pictures facilitate dynamic switching among multiple streams to accommodate bandwidth variability.
• High bit error rates, packet losses, and latency. For video applications, retransmissions are impractical for dropped or delayed packets, so h.264 provides several means (e.g., FMO, data partitioning, etc.) to contain error impacts and facilitate error concealment.
What is the relationship to MPEG-4 and MPEG-2?
Compared to MPEG-2
H.264 employs the same general approach as MPEG 1 & 2 as well as the h.261 and h.263 standards, but adds many incremental improvements to obtain coding efficiency improvement of about a factor-of-3.
MPEG-2 was optimized with specific focus on Standard and High Definition digital television services, which are delivered via circuit-switched head-end networks to dedicated satellite uplinks, cable infrastructure or terrestrial facilities. MPEG2’s ability to cope is being strained as the range of delivery media expands to include heterogeneous mobile networks, packet-switched IP networks, and multiple storage formats, and as the variety of services grows to include multimedia messaging, increased use of HDTV, and others. Thus, a second goal for h.264 was to accommodate a wider variety of bandwidth requirements, picture formats, and unfriendly network environments that throw high jitter, packet loss, and bandwidth instability into the mix.
Compared to MPEG-4
During 2002, the h.264 Video Coding Experts Group combined forces with MPEG4 experts to form the Joint Video Team (JVT), so H.264 is being published as MPEG-4 Part 10 (Advanced Video Coding).
MPEG-4 is really a family of standards whose overall theme is object-oriented multimedia applications. It thus has much broader scope than H.264, which is strictly focused on more efficient and robust video coding. The comparable part of MPEG-4 is Part 2 Visual (sometimes called “Natural Video”). Other parts of MPEG address scene composition, object description and java representation of behavior, animation of human body and facial movements, audio and systems.
MPEG-4
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Sync List Resource - Twilio
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List Resource
A Sync List is an ordered collection of individual items, each storing separate JSON objects.
After you create a List, use the ListItem resource to add, retrieve, update, and delete items from your List. See that page for more details on how items are stored in lists, including ordering, expiration, and limitations on each item's size.
List properties
Names in REST API format
sid
sid<ES> Not PII
The unique string that we created to identify the Sync List resource.
unique_name
An application-defined string that uniquely identifies the resource. It can be used in place of the resource's sid in the URL to address the resource.
account_sid
sid<AC> Not PII
The SID of the Account that created the Sync List resource.
service_sid
sid<IS> Not PII
The SID of the Sync Service the resource is associated with.
url
url Not PII
The absolute URL of the Sync List resource.
links
uri_map Not PII
The URLs of the Sync List's nested resources.
revision
string Not PII
The current revision of the Sync List, represented as a string.
date_expires
date_time<iso8601> Not PII
The date and time in GMT when the Sync List expires and will be deleted, specified in ISO 8601 format. If the Sync List does not expire, this value is null. The Sync List might not be deleted immediately after it expires.
date_created
date_time<iso8601> Not PII
The date and time in GMT when the resource was created specified in ISO 8601 format.
date_updated
date_time<iso8601> Not PII
The date and time in GMT when the resource was last updated specified in ISO 8601 format.
created_by
The identity of the Sync List's creator. If the Sync List is created from the client SDK, the value matches the Access Token's identity field. If the Sync List was created from the REST API, the value is system.
Create a List resource
post
https://sync.twilio.com/v1/Services/{ServiceSid}/Lists
Parameters
Names in REST API format
service_sid
Path
post sid_like<IS> Not PII
The SID of the Sync Service to create the new Sync List in.
unique_name
Optional
post string PII MTL: 30 DAYS
An application-defined string that uniquely identifies the resource. This value must be unique within its Service and it can be up to 320 characters long. The unique_name value can be used as an alternative to the sid in the URL path to address the resource.
ttl
Optional
post integer Not PII
Alias for collection_ttl. If both are provided, this value is ignored.
collection_ttl
Optional
post integer Not PII
How long, in seconds, before the Sync List expires (time-to-live) and is deleted. Can be an integer from 0 to 31,536,000 (1 year). The default value is 0, which means the Sync List does not expire. The Sync List will be deleted automatically after it expires, but there can be a delay between the expiration time and the resources's deletion.
Example
Fetch a List resource
get
https://sync.twilio.com/v1/Services/{ServiceSid}/Lists/{Sid}
Parameters
Names in REST API format
service_sid
Path
get sid_like<IS> Not PII
The SID of the Sync Service with the Sync List resource to fetch.
sid
Path
get sid_like<ES> Not PII
The SID of the Sync List resource to fetch.
Example
Read a List resource
get
https://sync.twilio.com/v1/Services/{ServiceSid}/Lists
Parameters
Names in REST API format
service_sid
Path
get sid_like<IS> Not PII
The SID of the Sync Service with the Sync List resources to read.
Example
Update a List resource
post
https://sync.twilio.com/v1/Services/{ServiceSid}/Lists/{Sid}
Parameters
Names in REST API format
service_sid
Path
post sid_like<IS> Not PII
The SID of the Sync Service with the Sync List resource to update.
sid
Path
post sid_like<ES> Not PII
The SID of the Sync List resource to update.
ttl
Optional
post integer Not PII
An alias for collection_ttl. If both are provided, this value is ignored.
collection_ttl
Optional
post integer Not PII
How long, in seconds, before the Sync List expires (time-to-live) and is deleted. Can be an integer from 0 to 31,536,000 (1 year). The default value is 0, which means the Sync List does not expire. The Sync List will be deleted automatically after it expires, but there can be a delay between the expiration time and the resources's deletion.
Example
Delete a List resource
delete
https://sync.twilio.com/v1/Services/{ServiceSid}/Lists/{Sid}
Permanently delete a List along with all items belonging to it.
Parameters
Names in REST API format
service_sid
Path
delete sid_like<IS> Not PII
The SID of the Sync Service with the Sync List resource to delete.
sid
Path
delete sid_like<ES> Not PII
The SID of the Sync List resource to delete.
Example
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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6,428,015,506,787,465,000
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Snowstorms and Heart Disease
If you are a heart patient you might be concerned about how the cold weather affects your heart. The body constricts blood flow to the skin to conserve heat, which also raises blood pressure. Many experience angina when active in cold weather.
Advice for how to manage angina related to cold includes:
• Do a warm up indoors to dilate the blood vessels and get heart rate slightly elevated before outdoor exertion
• Create a zone of warmer air to breath by using a scarf, mask or parka
• Avoid large meals and alcohol before exerting outdoors. Blood flow gets diverted and doesn’t go to the heart or exercising muscles instead it works to digest the food.
• Discuss using nitroglycerine before activity with your healthcare practitioner. Using the nitro to dilate the vessels prior to cold air exposure is a method used by some.
Snow Shoveling for Heart Patients
• Warm up, do some light exertion to dilate the blood vessels and get the heart rate slightly elevated before really “digging out”
• Dress appropriately in layers, when you feel warm take layers off. Preventing overheating from being overdressed is as important as dressing for the cold. Your heart works harder to cool your body down. Sweating excessively will lead to being cold later.
• Do not eat a large meal or smoke prior to shoveling, these divert the blood flow away from the heart and exercising muscles.
• Push the snow don’t lift if you can.
• Exhale on Exertion. Breath out when pushing or lifting, don’t hold your breath!!!! Holding breath increases blood pressure even further than the cold and exercise already has.
• Switch sides keep alternating the shovel in left and right hand. The constant twist to one side produces muscle injury and can be hard to distinguish between muscles and heart. Muscle pain can be reproduced with touch or movement, whereas heart pain cannot be reproduced by touch.
• Take breaks, listen to your body don’t over do it. The body constricts blood flow to the skin to conserve heat, which also raises blood pressure.
• Stay fit enough to shovel snow. If you don’t exercise regularly you are not strong enough to shovel wet heavy snow. The cardiovascular demands are even more due to excessive cold temperatures. Train for snow shoveling by performing aerobic exercise and resistance training.
• If you have symptoms STOP
Dealing with Raynauds in the cold weather
Raynaud’s occurs when the fingers and/or toes come into contact with cold. Beta blockers medications actually can aggravate Raynaud’s by leading to increased blood vessel spasm. This class of drugs, used to treat high blood pressure and heart disease, includes metoprolol (Lopressor, Toprol XL), nadolol (Corgard) and propranolol (Inderal, Innopran XL). It is important to cover your feet and hands before they get cold with warm gloves and socks. Make sure they are not too tight allow for circulation. Prevent the symptoms by creating a barrier between your skin and the cold. Even if you are only going out for a short while keep your fingers covered and wear warm foot protection. Frostbite occurs much quicker in persons with Raynaud’s.
.
Atrial Fibrillation is more common in Winter
The likelihood of being admitted to hospital or dying with atrial fibrillation, a life-threatening chaotic heartbeat common among the elderly, increases dramatically during winter months. Atrial Fibrillation is common in persons with heart disease. Be alert for symptoms of irregular heart rhythm, increased shortness of breath, increased fatigue. Additional factors contributing to the winter connection to atrial fibrillation may include drinking too much alcohol which leads to high blood pressure, heart failure, and possibly even stroke due to the atrial fibrillation.
http://www.hearthealthywomen.org/am-i-at-risk/am-i-at-risk/hfother2.html
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/raynaud/
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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-9,053,051,931,769,591,000
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periph: periph.io/x/periph/conn/gpio Index | Examples | Files | Directories
package gpio
import "periph.io/x/periph/conn/gpio"
Package gpio defines digital pins.
All GPIO implementations are expected to implement PinIO but the device driver may accept a more specific one like PinIn or PinOut.
Code:
// Make sure periph is initialized.
if _, err := host.Init(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
// Use gpioreg GPIO pin registry to find a GPIO pin by name.
p := gpioreg.ByName("GPIO6")
if p == nil {
log.Fatal("Failed to find GPIO6")
}
// A pin can be read, independent of its state; it doesn't matter if it is
// set as input or output.
fmt.Printf("%s is %s\n", p, p.Read())
Index
Examples
Package Files
func.go gpio.go
Constants
const (
// Inputs
IN pin.Func = "IN" // Input
IN_HIGH pin.Func = "In/High" // Read high
IN_LOW pin.Func = "In/Low" // Read low
// Outputs
OUT pin.Func = "OUT" // Output, drive
OUT_OC pin.Func = "OUT_OPEN" // Output, open collector/drain
OUT_HIGH pin.Func = "Out/High" // Drive high
OUT_LOW pin.Func = "Out/Low" // Drive low; open collector low
FLOAT pin.Func = "FLOAT" // Input float or Output open collector high
CLK pin.Func = "CLK" // Clock is a subset of a PWM, with a 50% duty cycle
PWM pin.Func = "PWM" // Pulse Width Modulation, which is a clock with variable duty cycle
)
type Duty Uses
type Duty int32
Duty is the duty cycle for a PWM.
Valid values are between 0 and DutyMax.
const (
// DutyMax is a duty cycle of 100%.
DutyMax Duty = 1 << 24
// DutyHalf is a 50% duty PWM, which boils down to a normal clock.
DutyHalf Duty = DutyMax / 2
)
func ParseDuty Uses
func ParseDuty(s string) (Duty, error)
ParseDuty parses a string and converts it to a Duty value.
Code:
d, err := gpio.ParseDuty("33%")
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
fmt.Println(d)
Output:
33%
func (Duty) String Uses
func (d Duty) String() string
func (Duty) Valid Uses
func (d Duty) Valid() bool
Valid returns true if the Duty cycle value is valid.
type Edge Uses
type Edge int
Edge specifies if an input pin should have edge detection enabled.
Only enable it when needed, since this causes system interrupts.
const (
NoEdge Edge = 0
RisingEdge Edge = 1
FallingEdge Edge = 2
BothEdges Edge = 3
)
Acceptable edge detection values.
func (Edge) String Uses
func (i Edge) String() string
type Level Uses
type Level bool
Level is the level of the pin: Low or High.
const (
// Low represents 0v.
Low Level = false
// High represents Vin, generally 3.3v or 5v.
High Level = true
)
func (Level) String Uses
func (l Level) String() string
type PinIO Uses
type PinIO interface {
pin.Pin
// PinIn
In(pull Pull, edge Edge) error
Read() Level
WaitForEdge(timeout time.Duration) bool
Pull() Pull
DefaultPull() Pull
// PinOut
Out(l Level) error
PWM(duty Duty, f physic.Frequency) error
}
PinIO is a GPIO pin that supports both input and output. It matches both interfaces PinIn and PinOut.
A GPIO pin implementing PinIO may fail at either input or output or both.
var INVALID PinIO
INVALID implements PinIO and fails on all access.
type PinIn Uses
type PinIn interface {
pin.Pin
// In setups a pin as an input.
//
// If WaitForEdge() is planned to be called, make sure to use one of the Edge
// value. Otherwise, use NoEdge to not generated unneeded hardware interrupts.
//
// Calling In() will try to empty the accumulated edges but it cannot be 100%
// reliable due to the OS (linux) and its driver. It is possible that on a
// gpio that is as input, doing a quick Out(), In() may return an edge that
// occurred before the Out() call.
In(pull Pull, edge Edge) error
// Read return the current pin level.
//
// Behavior is undefined if In() wasn't used before.
//
// In some rare case, it is possible that Read() fails silently. This happens
// if another process on the host messes up with the pin after In() was
// called. In this case, call In() again.
Read() Level
// WaitForEdge() waits for the next edge or immediately return if an edge
// occurred since the last call.
//
// Only waits for the kind of edge as specified in a previous In() call.
// Behavior is undefined if In() with a value other than NoEdge wasn't called
// before.
//
// Returns true if an edge was detected during or before this call. Return
// false if the timeout occurred or In() was called while waiting, causing the
// function to exit.
//
// Multiple edges may or may not accumulate between two calls to
// WaitForEdge(). The behavior in this case is undefined and is OS driver
// specific.
//
// It is not required to call Read() to reset the edge detection.
//
// Specify -1 to effectively disable timeout.
WaitForEdge(timeout time.Duration) bool
// Pull returns the internal pull resistor if the pin is set as input pin.
//
// Returns PullNoChange if the value cannot be read.
Pull() Pull
// DefaultPull returns the pull that is initialized on CPU/device reset. This
// is useful to determine if the pin is acceptable for operation with
// certain devices.
DefaultPull() Pull
}
PinIn is an input GPIO pin.
It may optionally support internal pull resistor and edge based triggering.
A button is semantically a PinIn. So if you are looking to read from a button, PinIn is the interface you are looking for.
Code:
// Make sure periph is initialized.
if _, err := host.Init(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
// Use gpioreg GPIO pin registry to find a GPIO pin by name.
p := gpioreg.ByName("GPIO6")
if p == nil {
log.Fatal("Failed to find GPIO6")
}
// Set it as input, with a pull down (defaults to Low when unconnected) and
// enable rising edge triggering.
if err := p.In(gpio.PullDown, gpio.RisingEdge); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
fmt.Printf("%s is %s\n", p, p.Read())
// Wait for rising edges (Low -> High) and print when one occur.
for p.WaitForEdge(-1) {
fmt.Printf("%s went %s\n", p, gpio.High)
}
type PinOut Uses
type PinOut interface {
pin.Pin
// Out sets a pin as output if it wasn't already and sets the initial value.
//
// After the initial call to ensure that the pin has been set as output, it
// is generally safe to ignore the error returned.
//
// Out() tries to empty the accumulated edges detected if the gpio was
// previously set as input but this is not 100% guaranteed due to the OS.
Out(l Level) error
// PWM sets the PWM output on supported pins, if the pin has hardware PWM
// support.
//
// To use as a general purpose clock, set duty to DutyHalf. Some pins may
// only support DutyHalf and no other value.
//
// Using 0 as frequency will use the optimal value as supported/preferred by
// the pin.
//
// To use as a servo, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servo_control as an
// explanation how to calculate duty.
PWM(duty Duty, f physic.Frequency) error
}
PinOut is an output GPIO pin.
A LED, a buzzer, a servo, are semantically a PinOut. So if you are looking to control these, PinOut is the interface you are looking for.
Code:
// Make sure periph is initialized.
if _, err := host.Init(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
// Use gpioreg GPIO pin registry to find a GPIO pin by name.
p := gpioreg.ByName("GPIO6")
if p == nil {
log.Fatal("Failed to find GPIO6")
}
// Set the pin as output High.
if err := p.Out(gpio.High); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
Code:
// Make sure periph is initialized.
if _, err := host.Init(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
// Use gpioreg GPIO pin registry to find a GPIO pin by name.
p := gpioreg.ByName("GPIO6")
if p == nil {
log.Fatal("Failed to find GPIO6")
}
// Generate a 33% duty cycle 10KHz signal.
if err := p.PWM(gpio.DutyMax/3, 10*physic.KiloHertz); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
type Pull Uses
type Pull uint8
Pull specifies the internal pull-up or pull-down for a pin set as input.
const (
PullNoChange Pull = 0 // Do not change the previous pull resistor setting or an unknown value
Float Pull = 1 // Let the input float
PullDown Pull = 2 // Apply pull-down
PullUp Pull = 3 // Apply pull-up
)
Acceptable pull values.
func (Pull) String Uses
func (i Pull) String() string
type RealPin Uses
type RealPin interface {
Real() PinIO // Real returns the real pin behind an Alias
}
RealPin is implemented by aliased pin and allows the retrieval of the real pin underlying an alias.
Aliases are created by RegisterAlias. Aliases permits presenting a user friendly GPIO pin name while representing the underlying real pin.
The purpose of the RealPin is to be able to cleanly test whether an arbitrary gpio.PinIO returned by ByName is an alias for another pin, and resolve it.
Code:
// Make sure periph is initialized.
if _, err := host.Init(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
// Use gpioreg GPIO pin registry to find a GPIO pin by name.
p := gpioreg.ByName("P1_3")
if p == nil {
log.Fatal("Failed to find P1_3")
}
fmt.Printf("P1_3: %s", p)
// Resolve the real underlying pin.
if r, ok := p.(gpio.RealPin); ok {
// On Raspberry Pis, pin #3 on header P1 is an alias for GPIO2.
fmt.Printf("%s is in fact %s", p, r.Real())
} else {
log.Printf("%s is not an alias", p)
}
Directories
PathSynopsis
gpioregPackage gpioreg defines a registry for the known digital pins.
gpiostreamPackage gpiostream defines digital streams.
gpiostream/gpiostreamtestPackage gpiostreamtest enables testing device driver using gpiostream.PinIn or PinOut.
gpiotestPackage gpiotest is meant to be used to test drivers using fake Pins.
Package gpio imports 6 packages (graph) and is imported by 108 packages. Updated 2018-11-21. Refresh now. Tools for package owners.
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
|
-1,568,440,223,163,223,300
|
How To Crack and use Seagate File Recovery 2 0
Author: Luvlife4u
20494 View
1m 8s Lenght
33 Rating
link https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B9iS_p2W3XJHRnpDSWNBdDRySlk First as you all you must have seagate v 2.0, For the code to work. Registration is easy Than follow the steps in my videos
Comments
1. thanks
2. is this some sort of virus maleware, why your lan card disconnected
3. This worked perfectly!! Thanks!! Love the tunes too!
4. Thanks you! Thanks you very much! :)))
5. ok
6. the key is invalid
7. What is the name of the song ?
8. What is the company name?
9. Has it work for anyone?
10. The code is: RAAABQlIRz2JK1mYYDjMilg2w2QlncGDYrh4NFPrTm32Jn/FJqLIvG1s5HVCeqfQ61BeO3ly1IOyU/ChV7fLjV04/pB8
But is not working.
11. send the code
12. COULD PUT THE CODE TO FACILITATE LIFE
|
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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-973,690,207,888,431,600
|
This is an example of a WordPress page, you could edit this to put information about yourself or your site so readers know where you are coming from. You can create as many pages like this one or sub-pages as you like and manage all of your content inside of WordPress.
Lasă un răspuns
Completeaza detaliile de mai jos sau apasa click pe una din imagini pentru a te loga:
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
|
-2,833,258,814,515,932,000
|
problemlösungen aus der computer- , netzwerktechnik- , linux welt, bash-scripting, drupal, etc. pp.
26 posts / 0 new
Letzter Beitrag
ad-min
problemlösungen aus der computer- , netzwerktechnik- , linux welt, bash-scripting, drupal, etc. pp.
Deutsch
hallo allerseits,
hier könnt ihr nach der registrierung eure meinungen über unsere kurse und unterrichtablauf austaschen, eure anregungen und wünsche herausbringen, neuigkeiten aus der computer- , netzwerktechnik- , webdesign-, drupal-, linuxwelt und bash-scripting veröffentlichen und eure technische probleme bzw. lösungen publizieren.
alle üblichen blog-, foren- und internet-etiquette regeln sind zu beachten: möglichst kurze und sachliche kommentare ... etc.pp.
(siehe link "Impressum")
ps. das forum ist momentan in deutsch und russisch herausgebracht, aber natürlich, können sie hier auch auf englisch posten.
---------------
The forum is currently published in German and Russian. Of course, you can write messages here also in English.
---------------
Форум публикуется (пока) на немецком и русском языках, что, конечно, не исключает возможности публиковать вам посты и на английском.
---------------
make script, not war!
---------------
s-3
drupal problem ...
nach dem update von drupal 6 auf 7 bekomme ich die Fehlermeldung:
Error at offset 11 of 37 bytes in variable_initialize() (line 936 of /var/www/?/data/www/?/includes/bootstrap.inc).
Hat jemand ein Tipp für die Lösung des Problems?
s-3
Drupal Problem ...
ich habe das modul "Variable Check" eingespielt - leider hat das nicht geholfen ...
:-(
il
Drupal Problem ...
Probier mal solche Methode:
Unter myphp -> mysql -> SQL DELETE Statement ausführen:
DELETE FROM variable WHERE name = 'NAME'
in deinem Fall NAME gleich 'unserialize' (nehme ich an)
ad-min
das modul "Variable Check"
normalerweise löst drupal (fast alle) probleme beim einspielen des neuen moduls
aber wer in der db mysql sich auskennt und das richtige statement abgibt der kommt schneller zurecht.
il
ubuntu cronjob funktioniert nicht ...
ubuntu: als normale user (kein root) funktioniert mein cronjob nicht und zwar:
crontab -e:
00 10 * * * ifconfig>/tmp/ifconfig_info
ad-min
Ubuntu Cronjob Funktioniert Nicht ...
in dem fall ist es ratsam absoluter pfad zu nutzen: anstatt ifconfig - /sbin/ifconfig
der cronjob wird dann so definiert:
00 10 * * * /sbin/ifconfig > /tmp/ifconfig_info
------------------
noch bessere lösung wäre es ein bash-skript schreiben (z.B "schreib_mein_ifconfig"), das skript ausführbar machen (chmod 755 schreib_mein_ifconfig) und erst dann als cronjob definieren
----------------------------------
cat schreib_mein_ifconfig
#!/bin/bash
/sbin/ifconfig > /tmp/ifconfig_info
----------------------------------
PS. WICHTIG:
das skript muss auch mit dem absoluten pfad in der crontab eingetragen werden:
crontab -e:
00 10 * * * /home/user/schreib_mein_ifconfig
il
danke, hat's geklappt!
danke, hat's geklappt!
s-3
drupal: artikel-problem ...
Die Aufgabe: ein Artikel NICHT auf der Startseite publizieren.
Bis jetzt habe ich keine Lösung gefunden!
Hilfe!
peter
hallo, man redet über
hallo, man redet über "Taxonomie" , "Vokabular" und "Begriffe" ,,,
ich habe neue seite erstellt, dann über taxonomie neuer vokabular und begriffe zugewiesen ...
das hat nicht funktioniert
:-(
s-3
motion server
hallo, motion-server funktioniert, aber die bilder von der webcam werden nicht gespeichert, obwohl ich target definiert habe:
target_dir /home/motion/motion
ad-min
motion server
hallo,
es muss die datei /etc/motion/motion.conf editiert werden und zwar:
bei ihnen (höchstwahrscheinlich) der parameter output_normal off es ist auch default-mäßig so. setzen sie der ob. gen. parameter auf on:
output_normal on
vorsicht! falls vor der kamera viel los ist, wird das verzeichnis (target_dir) immer grösser!
target_dir /home/motion/
sie sollen das verzeichnis entweder manuell (ab und an) leeren oder per skript über den cronjob
ad-min
motion server/ bash-scripting ...
was bash-scripting betrifft, hier ist ein kleines beispiel:
vi /usr/local/bin/script/script_mv_50
------------------------------
#!/bin/bash
#### variablen definition #########
A=`du /home/motion/motion|awk '{print $1}'`
###### falls das verzeichnis groesser als 5000 KB (5 MB) ist, loesch die erste 50 dateien (bilder) #########
if [[ $A -gt 5000 ]]
then
cd /home/motion/motion
mv `ls /home/motion/motion | head -50` /externe_festplatte;
else :
fi
------------------------------
das skript tut folgendes: die erste 50 dateien werden auf externe festplatte gemoved, sobald die größe des verzeichnisses grösser als 5000 KB ist.
um den vorgang zu automatisieren, kann das skript in crontab eingetragen werden. damit das skript mit 10 -minütigen rhythmus sich wiederholt, wird die folgende schreibweise benutzt:
crontab -e
*/10 * * * * /usr/local/bin/script/script_mv_50
ad-min
motion server - bash-scripting ...
es ergibt einen sinn die bilder (dateien) zu taren (einen tar-archiv zu erstellen) und dann extern zu sichern, falls an dem objekt viel los ist und sie das objekt nicht nur permanent beobachten möchten, sondern auch bilder speichern.
sie können, natürlich gleich das tar-archiv über das netz übertragen:
#!/bin/bash
#### variablen definition anfang #########
datum=`date +"%d"``date +%"m"``date +"%y"`
#### variablen definition ende #########
tar -czf - /home/motion/ | ssh ferner-rechner "cat > /home/$datum-objekt_monitoring_bilder.tgz"
dank der "datum-variable" können die bild-archive später leicht nach datum einordnen.
in dem bereich bash-scripting lässt es sich grenzenlos experimentieren, z.b.:
#!/bin/bash
#### variablen definition anfang #########
A=`ls /home/motion/motion | wc -l`
#### variablen definition ende #########
### falls die anzahl der bilder ändert sich, dann tu das und das ####
if [[ $A -ne 0 ]]
then
echo "ALARM"
else
echo "alles OK"
fi
anstatt echo "ALARM" können sie an sich selbst eine email senden (falls am linux rechner ein SSMTP-email-programm installiert ist) .... etc. pp. ...........
ad-min
bash-scripting ... rsync
man kann auch das synchronisation programm rsync (gleichzeitig ein netzwerkprotokoll) nutzen um die dateien über das netz sicher zu übertragen.
in dem fall wird das script so aussehen:
#!/bin/bash
rsync -av --delete -e ssh /home/motion/ user@ferner-rechner:/home/monitoring
ps. damit das skript einwandfrei funktioniert, müsste die passwortabfrage zwischen zwei rechnern (bzw. usern) unterdrückt werden.
wie das gemacht wird, ist ein anderes thema.
selaw2
Zufallsgenerator unter bash
Das Skript "zufallsgenerator": Starten sie ihren Computer und hören sie gleich ihre Lieblingsmusikstücke!
---------------------------------
cat -n /usr/local/bin/zufallsgenerator
#!/bin/bash
A=`ls /home/ich/Musik/relax/ | wc -l`;
B=`echo $((1 + $RANDOM % $A))`
/usr/bin/xplayer /home/ich/Musik/relax/$B
# Die Variable B bekommt ein zufälliger Wert von 1 bis A (A - maximale Anzahl ihre Dateien (bzw. Musikstücke) im Verzeichnis "relax")
---------------------------------
PS: Wenn sie das Skript in ihre Startprogramme hinzufügen, dann startet ihre Lieblingsmusikstück von dem Verzeichnis /home/ich/Musik/relax/ und zwar in eine zufällige Reihenfolge ;) und bei dem Start des Rechners hören sie gleich die Musik :)
PPS: Die Musikstücke sollen 1, 2, 3, ... A heißen (also natürliche Zahl), weil $RANDOM akzeptiert nur natürliche Zahlen (Ganzzahl) und das wäre ein "Problem" (in Anführungszeichen), weil es ist nicht wirklich ein Problem sondern eine Aufgabe.
Die Aufgabe ist: Wie der String-Dateiname (z.B.) "relaxmusik.mp4" wandle ich in eine Ganzzahl um?
..................
Hier ist die Lösung (Here is the solution):
RANDOM under bash accepts (unfortunately) only numeric numbers
The contents of the directory "/home/iam/musik"
ls /home/se/music/
relaxmusik.mp4
rockmusic.mp4
jazz.mp4
My task was: define file names numerically as follows:
the name "relaxmusik.mp4" should be "1"
the name "rockmusic.mp4" should be "2"
etc. pp.
Here is the solution:
I create the script "solution":
cat solution
#!/bin/bash
A="mv"
B=`ls /home/iam/musik | wc -l`
ls /home/iam/musik > /tmp/name-of-files
i=1
while [ $i -le $B ]
do
echo $A $i
i=`expr $i + 1`
done
The script "solution" does the following:
the output of the script is:
mv 1
mv 2
mv 3
and the file "/tmp/name-of-files" is generated.
Its content is:
relaxmusik.mp4
rockmusic.mp4
jazz.mp4
The output of the script "solution" will be redirected to the file /tmp/mv-number: ./solution > /tmp/mv-number
also cat /tmp/mv-number is:
mv 1
mv 2
mv 3
Now I use the command "paste" and "awk":
paste /tmp/mv-number /tmp/name-of-files | awk '{print $1, $3, $2}'
And ... I get the correct output:
mv relaxmusik.mp4 1
mv rockmusic.mp4 2
mv jazz.mp4 3
and the content of my directory "/home/iam/musik" is now:
ls /home/iam/musik
1
2
3
finished! -> now i can start random music playback under bash!
PS. I would be happy for your better suggestions :)
selaw2
ein skript "nachts_jeder_stunde"
#!/bin/bash
A=`ls /var/lib/motion/| wc -l`;
D=`date +"%d"``date +%"m"``date +"%y"`
E=`date | awk '{print $4}' | sed s/\:/-/g`
I=$D-$E
echo $I
cd /tmp/MOTION-ALARM/;
mkdir $D-$E
sleep 10
B=`ls /var/lib/motion/| wc -l`;
C=$[B-A]
echo $C
if [ $C -ne 0 ];
then
date > /tmp/MOTION-ALARM/$D-$E/datum-alarm
echo "ALARM"
echo "Info über motin-server" | sudo mail -s "Jemand ist in der Wohnung" [email protected]
else
echo "alles ruhig"
fi
############# Erklärung #############
Ich lasse das Skript über die Nacht jeder Stunde laufen von 01:10 bis 05:10 Uhr.
Ganz klar: Differenz zwischen zwei Variablen B und A sollte gleich 0 sein. Also Variable C=$[B-A]
gleich 0 - es gibt keine Bewegungen in der Wohnung - in der Wohnung ist dunkel!
Wenn das nicht der Fall sein sollte, dann (eindeutig): Jemand ist in der Wohnung! (Licht an, etc. pp.)
:(
selaw2
Das Skript speedtest (bzw. speedtest-cli)
Das (war) ist ein Python-Skript mit 1508 Zeilen von Matt Martz. Das Skript hat auf einmal nicht mehr funktioniert:
./speedtest
Retrieving speedtest.net configuration...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "./speedtest", line 1508, in
main()
File "./speedtest", line 1498, in main
shell()
File "./speedtest", line 1401, in shell
speedtest = Speedtest()
File "./speedtest", line 743, in __init__
self.get_config()
File "./speedtest", line 799, in get_config
map(int, server_config['ignoreids'].split(','))
#################
Und es ist sehr bedauerlich gewesen. Vor kurzem habe ich mein Linux Mint upgedated und dann "speedtest-cli" installiert:
# sudo apt install speedtest-cli
erneutinstalliert. Jetzt funktioniert es wieder :)
# sudo /usr/bin/speedtest-cli
Retrieving speedtest.net configuration...
Testing from Dein Provider (XXX.XXX.XXX.XXX)...
Retrieving speedtest.net server list...
Selecting best server based on ping...
Hosted by 31173 Services AB (Frankfurt) [23.59 km]: 8.044 ms
Testing download speed................................................................................
Download: 49.93 Mbit/s
Testing upload speed......................................................................................................
Upload: 11.19 Mbit/s
If "speedtest-cli" don't work, then take "speedtest-cli --secure" - then it will work
selaw2
boot-images auflisten
1) ls -1s /boot
2) dpkg -l 'linux-[ihs]*' | sed '/^ii/!d;/'"$(uname -r | sed "s/\([-0-9]*\)-\([^0-9]\+\)/\1/")"'/d;s/^[^ ]* [^ ]* \([^ ]*\).*/\1/;/[0-9]/!d'
selaw2
raspberry pi Grafische Konsole auf deinem PC starten
ssh -X [email protected] lxpanel
selaw2
vls aus Kommandozeile: Das Kommando nvlc
nvlc http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_1.m3u
# damit hören sie "hrinfo" - Livestream von HR-Info
###########
pi@raspberrypi:~ $ ps -ef | grep vlc | grep -v grep
pi 6212 1 9 23:15 ? 00:02:32 /usr/bin/vlc -I dummy http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_1.m3u
##############
*/1 * * * * /usr/local/bin/radio_hr-info
cat /usr/local/bin/radio_hr-info
#!/bin/bash
#/usr/bin/vlc http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_2.m3u &
if [ `ps -ef | grep vlc | grep -v grep | wc -l` -ne 1 ]
then cvlc http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_1.m3u &
else echo "ok"
fi
Es wird jeder Minute geprüft, ob Radio eingeschaltet ist. Falls nicht, dann wird cvlc mit hrinfo_1.m3u gestartet:
cvlc http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_1.m3u &
PS: Erfahrungsgemäß bricht die Verbindung zum Portal metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo leider (aus ungeklärtem Grund) sporadisch ab. Ich habe eine "Krücke" gefunden. Im crontab habe ich folgendes Skript eingetragen:
*/1 * * * * /usr/local/bin/radio_hr-info
cat /usr/local/bin/radio_hr-info
#!/bin/bash
#/usr/bin/vlc http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_2.m3u &
B=`date +"%d"``date +%"m"``date +"%y"`_`date | awk '{print $4}' | sed s/\:/-/g`;
if [ `ps -eLf | grep vlc | grep -v grep | wc -l` -ne 5 ]
then
ps -eLf | grep vlc | grep -v grep > /tmp/vlc_$B
kill -9 `ps -eLf | grep vlc | grep -v grep | awk '{print $2}'`;
cvlc http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_2.m3u &
else echo "ok"
fi
---------
Das Skript prüft, ob Prozesse von vlc laufen. Die Stückzahl der Prozessen sollte 5 sein. Falls das nicht der Fall sein sollte, werden die Prozesse gekillt und mit dem Kommando: cvlc http://metafiles.gl-systemhaus.de/hr/hrinfo_2.m3u &
wird die Musikausgabe erneut gestartet - und es funktioniert ;)
selaw2
break unter bashing
#!/bin/bash
i=0
while [[ $i -lt 10 ]]
do
echo "Number: $i"
((i++))
if [[ $i -eq 5 ]]; then
break
fi
done
selaw2
continue unter bashing
#!/bin/bash
i=0
while [[ $i -lt 5 ]]; do
((i++))
if [[ "$i" == '2' ]]; then
continue
fi
echo "Number: $i"
done
selaw2
Radio aus Konsole hören
selaw2
Online-Radio
Das Problem: Online-Radio bricht ab und zu ab (der Ton verschwindet).
D.h., dass Prozess-Zahl ändert sich.
Normalerweise die Zahl der vlc-Prozesse gleich 6:
A=`ps -AT | grep vlc | awk '{print $2}' | wc -l`
echo $A
6
------------------------------------
#!/bin/bash
# Variablendefinizion
A=`ps -AT | grep vlc | awk '{print $2}' | wc -l`
if [ $A -eq 6 ];
then
echo "OK";
else
# Falls die Zahl der Prozesse nicht equivalent 6, dann sollen die "Reste" des vlc-Prozess gekillt werden
kill `ps -AT | grep vlc | awk '{print $2}'`;
cvlc http://xxxxxxxxxxxxhrinfo_2.m3u &
fi
------------------------------------
selaw2
Umgebung nach wlan-Geräte scannen
# sudo iwlist wlan0 scan | grep ESSID
|
{
"url": "http://computerkurse-darmstadt.de/?q=de/comment/154",
"source_domain": "computerkurse-darmstadt.de",
"snapshot_id": "crawl=CC-MAIN-2022-49",
"warc_metadata": {
"Content-Length": "91293",
"Content-Type": "application/http; msgtype=response",
"WARC-Block-Digest": "sha1:HNPCCB5TKSMQNQPPV54V3MOZI4Y6RV3C",
"WARC-Concurrent-To": "<urn:uuid:8ea1cc1c-d44f-40a6-b6c8-7264edc4ed6a>",
"WARC-Date": "2022-12-08T08:53:44Z",
"WARC-IP-Address": "81.169.145.78",
"WARC-Identified-Payload-Type": "text/html",
"WARC-Payload-Digest": "sha1:NL7GTFM3MM4EPAVOZ7U752IQMQMXVJPG",
"WARC-Record-ID": "<urn:uuid:bde77f81-dc47-4b67-b21c-68248ae730f5>",
"WARC-Target-URI": "http://computerkurse-darmstadt.de/?q=de/comment/154",
"WARC-Truncated": null,
"WARC-Type": "response",
"WARC-Warcinfo-ID": "<urn:uuid:4edff531-c8d8-4242-8519-8f88fa3d50fa>"
},
"warc_info": "isPartOf: CC-MAIN-2022-49\r\npublisher: Common Crawl\r\ndescription: Wide crawl of the web for November/December 2022\r\noperator: Common Crawl Admin ([email protected])\r\nhostname: ip-10-67-67-150\r\nsoftware: Apache Nutch 1.19 (modified, https://github.com/commoncrawl/nutch/)\r\nrobots: checked via crawler-commons 1.4-SNAPSHOT (https://github.com/crawler-commons/crawler-commons)\r\nformat: WARC File Format 1.1\r\nconformsTo: https://iipc.github.io/warc-specifications/specifications/warc-format/warc-1.1/"
}
|
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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|
[SciPy-dev] Input value from data file to 2D array
tournesol tournesol33@gmail....
Thu Apr 17 22:23:57 CDT 2008
Hi All.
I'm a newbie of python and scipy, numpy and
try to rewriting the Fortran77 code to Python.
First, here is my Fortran code.
DIMENSION A(10,10), B(10,10)
OPEN(21,FILE='aaa.dat')
DO 10 K=1,2
READ(21,1602) ((A(I,J),J=1,3),I=1,2)
READ(21,1602) ((B(I,J),J=1,3),I=1,2)
10 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,1602) ((A(I,J),J=1,3),I=1,2)
WRITE(6,1602) ((B(I,J),J=1,3),I=1,2)
1602 FORMAT(3I4)
END
and aaa.dat file is
0 1 1
1 1 1
2 1 1
; ; ;
; ; ;
18 1 1
19 1 1
The code is going to read each value of the data file(aaa.dat)
and input the value to the array A, B. According the "DO 10 K=1,2"
which means a loop of Fortran it is going to try to read 1st 2x3 array
and set them to A, also read 2nd 2x3 array to B.
Two "WRITE(6,1602) "s mean that the final value of array A and B are
3rd 2x3 array adn 4th 2x3 array
4 1 1
5 1 1
6 1 1
7 1 1
Question 1: How to input value from data file to 2D array ?
Can I write code like following ?
a=zeros([2,3], Float)
for i in range(1,2):
for j in range(1,3):
a[i][j]=i,j
(If the size of data file is very big , using
read_array() or fromfile() will be very hard. )
Question 2: Such like "DO 10 K=1,1500", I just read a part of
data file(<=very big file). How cat write this with Python ?
Any advice please!
More information about the Scipy-dev mailing list
|
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3,282,282,658,966,165,000
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1
How to create customize primary key in MySQL?, example i have table and the table name is X, I have a table field as ID,Code,Name.
I am afraid if I have 1000 users and when they input together will result in destruction
and i want to :
INSERT INTO `X` (`ID`,`Code`,`Name`) VALUES
('P3K','Alex'), // this primary key is "P3K-1"
('SOS','Force'), // this primary key is "SOS-1"
('P3K','Bash'), // this primary key is "P3K-2"
Right now, i using TRIGGER (BEFORE INSERT) for this, like this one:
SET NEW.`ID` = CONCAT(NEW.`Code`,'-',IFNULL(SUBSTRING_INDEX((
SELECT `x`.`Code` FROM `X` WHERE
X.`Code` = NEW.`Code` and
ORDER BY X.`Code` DESC
LIMIT 1 ),'-',-1),0) + 1))
I did not try this code, but my point is:
1. User insert
2. Before insert I checking LAST Primary
3. IF Null then i set 0, else i cut the symbol (-) and take the last part
4. I increments (using [+ 1])
5. Final, i concat CODE and New Number.
am i misguided? LOL, and if true, how to create like this one? (I THINK) We can do it and maybe no one knows about this, how does AI in MySQL work so perfectly?
2
Do not make auto_increment any column you want to manipulate explicitly. That can confuse an engine and cause serious problems. If no column you have used for primary key are auto_increment you can do anything you want with them via triggers. Sure generated values will be rejected if they violate the mandatory uniqness of the primary key.
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Posted by on Jun 7, 2015 in Tell Me Why Numerous Questions and Answers |
How Does a Light Bulb Work?
How Does a Light Bulb Work?
Inside a light bulb, a glass rod supports a thin, coiled wire called a filament. It is made of tungsten, a special metal that can stand extreme heat. When electricity passes through the tungsten filament, the filament becomes so hot that it glows with a bright light.
Before the bulb and its contents are sealed up tight all the air is pumped out, and a special non-burning gas is put in. This is done because the hot filament would quickly burn up if exposed to air. The inside of the bulb is given a white coat to make the bulb’s light softer.
Another common type of light is the fluorescent lamp. A fluorescent lamp is a glass tube filled with argon gas and a trough of mercury. When electrical current is passed through the gas the atoms of the gas pick up energy and radiate it in the form of ultra-violet light and some heat. The UV light then strikes the inside of the tube, which is coated with a phosphor. The phosphor glows, giving off the light we see.
Fluorescent lamps don’t require high temperatures to produce light, like incandescent bulbs do. Energy must be used in heating the incandescent bulb, and a large part of that energy is lost as heat, not light. In the fluorescent lamp, a larger portion of the energy is radiated as light.
Content for this question contributed by Wendy Palagyi, resident of Madison, Ohio, USA
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On Demand App Generation (ODAG) Best Practices in Qlik Sense (3.0 and 2017 releases)
On Demand App Generation (ODAG) was an approach introduced in Qlik Sense 3.0 to use the Qlik Analytic Platform (QAP) APIs to create Qlik Sense applications for very large or frequently changing data sets.
The ODAG method provides an easy way to generate applications containing slices of data from a very large data set, without needing to load all data into memory in Qlik Sense. Users make selections in “selection” or “parent” apps which contain an aggregated view of the entire data set, and can generate their own apps built using specific scopes of data driven by these selections. The resulting “detail” or “child” apps reload while the user waits to provide up to the full granularity of the data set, over a limited row set.
Qlik Sense 3.0 – via Extension
Initially, functionality was provided via extensions only, interacting with the public APIs. As per the ODAG user guide released with the extension, this required a few tweaks of the Qlik Sense security rules, and upload of the extension (http://branch.qlik.com/#!/project/56f1689bc5b2f734933c7e52) to the server.
As Qlik Sense lacks popular QlikView features like loop and reduce and native document chaining, this provided a first step into making larger data sets accessible with Qlik Sense (without using Direct Discovery, which has limitations).
Qlik Sense June 2017 onward – Native
With the June 2017 release, the extension was moved into Qlik Sense as a native feature, and an on-demand service added to control the logging level and the number of apps that could be generated at one time.
From the extension, the only feature lost was the ability to set a name for the child apps from within the selection app (instead, it takes the name of the template and appends the user directory and name). This gap is partially covered by providing an ODAG “drawer” from which users can recall a list of generated apps, complete with the selections they made to create each one.
Over time, extra configuration options were added, although the initial state allowed developers to specify how many child apps users can keep per ODAG link, and for how long these are retained on the server.
For more information on the configuration options and the code required to create bindings, see this Qlik help page.
Considerations for maximising value from ODAG
Here’s a few thoughts on how to reduce risk and increase the stability and scalability of your ODAG solution:
• Ensure your aggregated data carries a proxy for the total row count, which can then be used in the ODAG row limit. Aim to keep these slices to ~100,000 rows (depending on your data source and query complexity)
• Provide your users with guidance on which fields they need to make selections in and the current row count, and set expectations over generation time and retention of those applications (e.g. if you have an ODAG link set to remove apps after three days, state this in the selection and detail apps)
• Provide a summary of selections used to generate the detail app in the detail app. Don’t rely on users going back to the selection app and checking the ODAG link pane – ensure you minimise the risk of user error
• Ensure the ODAG selection and detail apps have a similar look and feel, as well as navigation. The user should be able to see that the apps are related, and that the detail app is in fact their own copy of a template loaded with only the data they requested
• ODAG data sources should be optimised for your queries. For QVDs, this means creating index QVDs which map to the main Fact QVDs via key fields – therefore allowing an optimised load on the slowest step. For technologies like Impala, this is ensuring the table is partitioned by the most common fields a user makes selections in (alternatively, consider using odso to ensure you always limit the data using fields in the partition). In SQL server, Oracle etc, you’ll want to be maintaining indexes on important fields and considering the use of integer values or keys
• The ODAG binding types (ods/odo/odso) should be used appropriately. Fields with a high number of distinct or long values, should avoid the use of odso (as this passes every selected or optional value in the field), rather using this for date fields that might be indexed in the data source
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Íîâîñòè
Ëàíäøàôòíûé äèçàéí - ýòî èñêóññòâî ñîçäàíèÿ ãàðìîíè÷íîãî îêðóæàþùåãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, êîòîðîå îáúåäèíÿåò àðõèòåêòóðó è ïðèðîäó.  ýòîì êîíòåêñòå, ïåñ÷àíûå áàññåéíû ñòàëè êëþ÷åâûì ýëåìåíòîì äèçàéíà, ïîçâîëÿþùèì âîïëîòèòü â æèçíü êîíöåïöèþ åñòåñòâåííîé ãàðìîíèè.
Ïóøêèíñêèé ìóçåé èçîáðàçèòåëüíûõ èñêóññòâ çàíèìàåò îñîáîå ìåñòî ñðåäè êóëüòóðíûõ èíñòèòóòîâ Ìîñêâû. Ýòîò ìóçåé – âàæíàÿ ñîêðîâèùíèöà èñêóññòâà. Êðîìå òîãî, ýòî óíèêàëüíîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî äëÿ çíàêîìñòâà ñ øåäåâðàìè ðàçíûõ ýïîõ è ñòèëåé.
Ñòèë Íîðä — ýòî ïðîèçâîäñòâåííàÿ êîìïàíèÿ èç ãîðîäà Ïåñòîâî Íîâãîðîäñêîé îáëàñòè, çàíèìàþùàÿñÿ âûïóñêîì àíòèâàíäàëüíîé ñàíòåõíèêè — ïðîäóêöèè, èçãîòàâëèâàåìîé èç íåðæàâåþùåé ñòàëè, ÷òî äåëàåò å¸ ïðàêòè÷åñêè ïîëíîñòüþ çàùèù¸ííîé îò âîçäåéñòâèé êàê ÷åëîâåêà, òàê è ïðèðîäû.
ßíäåêñ.Ìåòðèêà
Óñòàíîâëåíèå îïòèìàëüíûõ äîç óäîáðåíèé
Åñëè òðåáóåòñÿ óñòàíîâèòü, êàêàÿ äîçà óäîáðåíèé â äàííûõ óñëîâèÿõ äàåò ìàêñèìàëüíóþ îïëàòó åäèíèöû ïèòàòåëüíîãî âåùåñòâà â óäîáðåíèè è ïðè êàêîé äîçå ïîëó÷àåòñÿ â äàííûõ óñëîâèÿõ ìàêñèìàëüíûé óðîæàé, à òàêæå êàêàÿ äîçà õîçÿéñòâåííî íàèáîëåå âûãîäíàÿ, íåîáõîäèìî ïîëó÷èòü êðèâóþ èçìåíåíèÿ óðîæàåâ ïðè âîçðàñòàíèè äîç óäîáðåíèé. Ïðàêòè÷åñêè íå òðåáóåòñÿ íàëè÷èÿ â îïûòå ìíîãèõ âàðèàíòîâ ñ ðàçëè÷íûìè äîçèðîâêàìè. Èíòåðâàëû ìåæäó äâóìÿ äîçàìè äîëæíû áûòü äîñòàòî÷íî âåëèêè, ÷òîáû ïðèáàâêè îò ñîñåäíèõ äîç ìîãëè ðàçëè÷àòüñÿ íà âåëè÷èíó, ïðåâîñõîäÿùóþ îøèáêó îïûòà. Ïîýòîìó îáû÷íî áûâàåò âïîëíå äîñòàòî÷íûì íàëè÷èå â îïûòå òðåõ-÷åòûðåõ äîç. Äëÿ õàðàêòåðèñòèêè äåéñòâèÿ îòäåëüíîé äîçû ñ öåëüþ óñòàíîâëåíèÿ åå õîçÿéñòâåííîé ïðèãîäíîñòè íåîáõîäèìî çíàòü àáñîëþòíóþ ïðèáàâêó óðîæàÿ, ïîëó÷àåìóþ îò äàííîé äîçû óäîáðåíèÿ. Ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, â ýòîì ñëó÷àå îñíîâíûì êîíòðîëüíûì âàðèàíòîì ÿâëÿåòñÿ âàðèàíò áåç óäîáðåíèé. Ho åãî íåäîñòàòî÷íî; âîçìîæíî, ÷òî òà æå ïðèáàâêà óðîæàÿ ìîæåò áûòü ïîëó÷åíà è ïðè ìåíüøåé äîçå óäîáðåíèÿ. Âîçìîæíî, îäíàêî, ÷òî äàëüíåéøåå óâåëè÷åíèå äîçû óäîáðåíèÿ îêàæåòñÿ åùå áîëåå âûãîäíûì; äëÿ âûÿñíåíèÿ ýòîãî íåîáõîäèìî èìåòü â îïûòå äîçó áîëüøóþ, ÷åì èçó÷àåìàÿ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, äëÿ îöåíêè ïðàâèëüíîñòè âûáðàííîé äîçû íåîáõîäèìî èìåòü äâå äîçû, ìåíüøóþ è áîëüøóþ. Íàèáîëåå óäîáíî áðàòü ïîëîâèííóþ äîçó è ïîëóòîðíóþ. Äîçû óäîáðåíèé, èñïûòàííûå íà îäíîì ôîíå, ÷àñòî íåïðèãîäíû íà äðóãîì ôîíå óäîáðåíèé èëè àãðîòåõíèêè. Íàïðèìåð, îïòèìàëüíûå äîçû àçîòà ïðè íàëè÷èè ïîëèâà áóäóò îäíè, áåç ïîëèâà — äðóãèå, íà ôîíå ôîñôîðà — îäíè, áåç ôîñôîðà — äðóãèå è ò. ä.
Îïûòû ñ äîçàìè åñòåñòâåííî ïåðåõîäÿò â êîìïëåêñíûå îïûòû ïî èçó÷åíèþ ñîîòíîøåíèÿ ïèòàòåëüíûõ âåùåñòâ ïðè ðàçëè÷íûõ äîçàõ. Äëÿ èçó÷åíèÿ ñîîòíîøåíèÿ êîìïîíåíòîâ â ñîñòàâå ñìåøàííûõ óäîáðåíèé Î. Øðåéíåð ïðåäëîæèë òàêóþ ïîñòàíîâêó îïûòîâ ïî òðåóãîëüíîé ñèñòåìå, ïðè êîòîðîé â îñíîâó âñåõ êîìáèíàöèé êëàäåòñÿ ñóììà N + P2O5 + K2O è âñå êîìáèíàöèè, ó÷àñòâóþùèå â îïûòàõ, äîëæíû èìåòü îäíó è òó æå ñóììó ýòèõ ýëåìåíòîâ. Ïðè òàêîé ñèñòåìå ÷èñòî ìåõàíè÷åñêîå óñòàíîâëåíèå âîçìîæíûõ êîìáèíàöèé ëèøàåò âîçìîæíîñòè ïðîâåðèòü ïðèãîäíîñòü äàæå ñàìûõ õîäîâûõ êîìáèíàöèé. Íåëüçÿ, îñòàâëÿÿ íîðìàëüíóþ äîçó àçîòà, âûêëþ÷èòü äåéñòâèå ôîñôîðà, òàê êàê àçîò, ôîñôîð èëè êàëèé â îòäåëüíîñòè íå ìîãóò áûòü äàíû ïðè ñèñòåìå òðåóãîëüíèêà â äîçå, ìåíüøåé ñóììû äîç âñåõ òðåõ ýëåìåíòîâ.  ñõåìå òàêîãî îïûòà íåò äàæå ñðàâíèìûõ äåëÿíîê, òàê êàê âñå îíè îòëè÷àþòñÿ ñðàçó ïî äîçàì ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå äâóõ ïèòàòåëüíûõ âåùåñòâ.
© 2012-2016 Âñå îá àãðîõèìèè Âñå ïðàâà çàùèùåíû
Ïðè öèòèðîâàíèè è èñïîëüçîâàíèè ëþáûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ ññûëêà íà ñàéò îáÿçàòåëüíà
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API with NestJS #101. Managing sensitive data using the AWS Secrets Manager
AWS NestJS
This entry is part 101 of 146 in the API with NestJS
When managing the architecture of our system, we often deal with sensitive data. It’s our job to ensure they don’t fall into the wrong hands. An excellent example of confidential information is the database password and the Json Web Token secret key. In this article, we explore how we can use the AWS Secrets Manager to increase the security of our NestJS application.
Defining environment variables
It’s tough to hide a piece of information when it is included in the source code of our application.
database.module.ts
With the above approach, everyone with access to our code has full access to our database. This is a significant security issue that might lead to compromising our database. This might be especially apparent if we write open-source software, but it is not limited to it. For example, we might have teammates we trust enough to provide them with the code, but we wouldn’t want them tinkering with the production database.
Besides that, our testing environment will surely use a different database than the production environment. When we include environment-specific details in our code, we don’t have a straightforward way of reusing our code across different environments.
We can solve the above problems by externalizing specific values in the form of environment variables. The NestJS application we’ve created during this series has a bunch of them. A good example is the password of our PostgreSQL database. A good way of introducing an environment variable is to add it to our . When doing that, we force NestJS to check if all necessary environment variables are provided. If we forget to provide a specific variable we marked as required, the application won’t start.
app.module.ts
Using environment variables, we can now improve our and avoid hardcoding sensitive information in our code.
database.module.ts
Providing the values for the environment variables
When we develop and run our application locally on our machine, we can provide the values for our environment variables by creating a dedicated file called .
It is a good practice to avoid commiting the file to the repository.
.env
Since our application runs in Docker, we need to point it to the file containing our environment variables.
docker-compose.yml
If you want to know more about running NestJS using Docker, check out API with NestJS #91. Dockerizing a NestJS API with Docker Compose
Environment variables values in ECS
In one of the previous parts of this series, we learned how to deploy our NestJS application using Amazon Elastic Container Service. One of the important parts of it was providing the environment variables for our application running in the cluster.
So far, we’ve been doing that by putting the values directly into the task definition.
Unfortunately, this has some downsides. First, we need to acknowledge that in real-life scenarios, a web application is managed by a whole team of people. Each person might have their own AWS account and access to certain parts of our configuration.
With the above approach, everyone who can access our task definition has access to all of our environment variables, including sensitive data. To deal with this issue, we can use the AWS Secrets Manager.
Introducing AWS Secrets Manager
With AWS Secrets Manager, we can control access to sensitive information, such as database credentials and private keys. We can also rotate them by configuring AWS to change the passwords automatically.
Integration with RDS
Let’s start by opening the Secrets Manager dashboard and going to the secrets page. When we do that, we notice that we might already have some secrets defined.
This is because Relational Database Service (RDS) is integrated with the Secrets Manager. When we created our database, AWS stored our credentials in the Secrets Manager.
If you want to read morea bout using the Relational Database Service, check out API with NestJS #93. Deploying a NestJS app with Amazon ECS and RDS
When we click on the name of our secret, we can access all of the associated values.
To be able to refer to the secret values in the Elastic Container Service, we need the Amazon Resource Name (ARN) of our secret. You can find it at the top of the page.
Creating new secrets
Besides the database, we also have other sensitive information in our environment variables, such as the JWT secret key. Therefore, let’s create a new secret to hold it.
To do that, we need to click the “Store a new secret” button on the secrets page. Then, we must choose the right secret type and define key/value pairs. In the case of our JWT token, the only thing we want to store for now is the secret key.
We also need to provide our secret with a name.
Allowing the service to use our secrets
By default, our services can’t access any of our secrets. To allow that, we need to create an IAM policy with the correct permissions.
Make sure to put the correct resource names in the resources part of the above interface. You can find the Amazon Resource Name (ARN) of each secret on its page in the Secrets Manager.
We also need to give a name to our policy.
By default, AWS uses the IAM role when executing our ECS tasks.
We can create our custom IAM role containing the permissions in the and our new policy. When doing that, it’s important to select the correct use case.
We also need to provide our new role with the required permissions.
Thanks to doing the above, we can choose our new role when defining the task definition. If we do that, our service will be able to use the secrets we’ve created.
Using the secret values
The last step is to modify our task definition to use the values from the secrets manager.
To use a value from the secrets manager, we must choose ValueFrom as the value type. The most crucial thing is using the right resource name as values in our environment variables.
The resource name consists of the following parts: . By adding at the end of the resource name, we can refer to one of the keys of our secret, for example, .
Therefore, in our case, we use the following values:
Summary
In this article, we’ve increased the security of our architecture. To do that, we stored sensitive data necessary for our NestJS application to run in the AWS Secrets Manager. While doing that, we also had to create additional policies and roles so that our service would have access to the secrets. Thanks to all of the above, we’ve improved our workflow and learned more about AWS.
Series Navigation<< API with NestJS #100. The HTTPS protocol with Route 53 and AWS Certificate ManagerAPI with NestJS #102. Writing unit tests with Prisma >>
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Getting Error while uploading file on localhost using client application
Apr 29, 2015 at 5:54 AM
Hi,
I have two projects one is client side project and one is server side hssinterlink library project.I want to upload files from client to server and for that my client is communicating with server using webclient.UploadFile method.But i m getting internal server error plz let me know what i m doing wrong.This is my client side code-
fileName = @"D:\ms.jpg";
String guid = Guid.NewGuid().ToString();
string query = string.Empty;
string httpmethod = null;
string queryString = string.Empty;
for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++)
{
string datetime = DateTime.Now.ToString("MM/dd/yyyy HH:mm:ss", System.Globalization.DateTimeFormatInfo.InvariantInfo);
string method = null;
if (i == 0)
{
method = "Prepare";
httpmethod = "POST";
}
if (i == 1)
{
method = "CheckFileExists";
httpmethod = "GET";
}
if (i == 2)
{
method = "NewFile";
httpmethod = "GET";
}
if (i == 3)
{
method = "Append";
httpmethod = "POST";
}
if (action == "download")
queryString = datetime + ",DownloadHandler," + guid + "," + fileName + ","+ method +",Admin,Client1,1,1";
else
queryString = datetime + ",UploadHandler," + guid + "," + fileName + ","+ method +",Admin,Client1,1,1";
byte[] qbytes = UTF8Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(queryString);
byte[] hashBytes = new System.Security.Cryptography.SHA1Managed().ComputeHash(qbytes);
byte[] data = new byte[qbytes.Length + hashBytes.Length];
Array.Copy(qbytes, data, qbytes.Length);
Array.Copy(hashBytes, 0, data, qbytes.Length, hashBytes.Length);
query = Convert.ToBase64String(data);
string url = string.Empty;
if (action == "download")
url = "http://localhost:xxx/FileDownload.ashx?d=" + query;
else
url = "http://localhost:xxx/FileUpload.ashx?u=" + query;
Uri uri = new Uri(url);
if (action == "download")
{
}
else
{
WebClient web = new WebClient();
web.UploadFile(url,httpmethod, fileName);
}
}
Thanks
Coordinator
Apr 29, 2015 at 8:25 PM
You cannot use webClient.UploadFile with HSS Interlink. WebClient UploadFile is for sending a single file directly to your web server.
HSS Interlink uses a custom, multi-step process, for delivering one or more files (including large files), asynchronously, with support for retry, and chunking.
You'll have to recreate the HSS Interlink client side from the source code, or embed the Silverlight Client included with HSS Interlink, on your web page. Or if running as a process, then use the .NET Client.
Apr 30, 2015 at 9:01 AM
Hi,
Thanks for ur response.Now i m doing the same thing I am using http response for sending files as chunk to server. I am able to create a 0 kb file on server but when i m trying to append that file i m randomly getting error on tryparsequery function can u plz help me out.
Thanks
Coordinator
Apr 30, 2015 at 9:22 AM
Not sure what we can do to help you. The product is designed to work and provide the features as outlined on the product home page. Not sure what you're trying to accomplish by stripping out the client side code.
If you want to create a new "client" side that works with the existing server side, then I recommend you read thru the Client side code and understand the protocol, the multi-steps and how they work together. Then you can re-create the logic that already exist.
If you have a more specific question, we'd be more than happy to answer.
May 1, 2015 at 2:05 PM
Hi,
Thanks for ur response,I m trying to create new client that worked with the existing server side.I have undersand the protocol and using same code to connect to server .
But when i send query to server m getting error while parsing query "format exception" in parse query method of server.I m confused Is there any format to send query string to server.I m getting that error randomly.
plz help me out
thanks
|
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tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1994130783874175266.post687225184060731154..comments2019-08-23T07:58:56.330+02:00Comments on bitsquid: development blog: Sensible Error Handling - Part 2Niklashttp://www.blogger.com/profile/[email protected]:blogger.com,1999:blog-1994130783874175266.post-1061980787162773472012-02-10T13:34:48.440+01:002012-02-10T13:34:48.440+01:00Choosing error codes creates new problems: * how ...Choosing error codes creates new problems: <br />* how to educate programmers who create APIs? :) <br />You can not expect world became better place if all you give is artificial SaveSystem example. The errno gives me creeps every time i remember that it exists. GetOverlappedResult anyone? Yeah I know I risk to be banned here just look at official example here (http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa365690%28v=vs.85%29.aspx)...<br /><br />* why all those c++ libraries throw? if I am not mistaken only Google publish c++ code that does not do that.<br /><br />personally my problem with exceptions is that async execution of such things as SaveSystem become even more verbose as we need to capture all poorly documented exceptions and send back to client code.Miroslavhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/[email protected]:blogger.com,1999:blog-1994130783874175266.post-20227741422121411882012-02-07T22:28:28.340+01:002012-02-07T22:28:28.340+01:00Agreed, but such information does not necessarily ...Agreed, but such information does not necessarily have to be part of the returned error (in my opinion). It can equally well be printed to a log, since its target recipient is the human programmer.Niklashttps://www.blogger.com/profile/[email protected]:blogger.com,1999:blog-1994130783874175266.post-56630425149713982232012-02-06T16:11:47.979+01:002012-02-06T16:11:47.979+01:00I really like NSErrors from Cocoa. They encapsulat...I really like NSErrors from Cocoa. They encapsulate all the relevant information about an error:<br />- Domain ("POSIX", "CFNetwork", "AudioQueue") as a string<br />- Error code (-129, EADDRINUSE, 42)<br />- Localized, human readable error string ("The file at /foo/bar could not be opened because its volume is not mounted")<br /><br />They also have recovery options that can be displayed to the user, but I've never seen them be used...<br /><br />An API for reporting errors that does not include a human-readable string formatted for the current error (e g showing me *which* file failed to be opened) makes me very, very sad. Context is sometimes not enough to determine what on earth the error code means.nevynhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/[email protected]
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The Well-Grounded Rubyist, Second Edition
David A. Black
• June 2014
• ISBN 9781617291692
• 536 pages
• printed in black & white
Once again, the definitive book on Ruby from David Black. A must-have!
William Wheeler, TekSystems
The Well-Grounded Rubyist, Second Edition addresses both newcomers to Ruby as well as Ruby programmers who want to deepen their understanding of the language. This beautifully written and totally revised second edition includes coverage of features that are new in Ruby 2.1, as well as expanded and updated coverage of aspects of the language that have changed.
Listen to this book in liveAudio! liveAudio integrates a professional voice recording with the book’s text, graphics, code, and exercises in Manning’s exclusive liveBook online reader. Use the text to search and navigate the audio, or download the audio-only recording for portable offline listening. You can purchase or upgrade to liveAudio here or in liveBook.
Table of Contents detailed table of contents
preface
preface to the first edition
acknowledgments
about this book
about the cover illustration
Part 1 Ruby foundations
1. Bootstrapping your Ruby literacy
1.1. Basic Ruby language literacy
1.1.1. A Ruby syntax survival kit
1.1.2. The variety of Ruby identifiers
1.1.3. Method calls, messages, and Ruby objects
1.1.4. Writing and saving a simple program
1.1.5. Feeding the program to Ruby
1.1.6. Keyboard and file I/O
1.2. Anatomy of the Ruby installation
1.2.1. The Ruby standard library subdirectory (RbConfig::CONFIG[rubylibdir])
1.2.2. The C extensions directory (RbConfig::CONFIG[archdir])
1.2.3. The site_ruby (RbConfig::CONFIG[sitedir]) and vendor_ruby (RbConfig::CONFIG[vendordir]) directories
1.2.4. The gems directory
1.3. Ruby extensions and programming libraries
1.3.1. Loading external files and extensions
1.3.2. "Load"-ing a file in the default load path
1.3.3. "Require"-ing a feature
1.3.4. require_relative
1.4. Out-of-the-box Ruby tools and applications
1.4.1. Interpreter command-line switches
1.4.2. A closer look at interactive Ruby interpretation with irb
1.4.3. ri and RDoc
1.4.4. The rake task-management utility
1.4.5. Installing packages with the gem command
1.5. Summary
2. Objects, methods, and local variables
2.1. Talking to objects
2.1.1. Ruby and object orientation
2.1.2. Creating a generic object
2.1.3. Methods that take arguments
2.1.4. The return value of a method
2.2. Crafting an object: The behavior of a ticket
2.2.1. The ticket object, behavior first
2.2.2. Querying the ticket object
2.2.3. Shortening the ticket code via string interpolation
2.2.4. Ticket availability: Expressing Boolean state in a method
2.3. The innate behaviors of an object
2.3.1. Identifying objects uniquely with the object_id method
2.3.2. Querying an object’s abilities with the respond_to? method
2.3.3. Sending messages to objects with the send method
2.4. A close look at method arguments
2.4.1. Required and optional arguments
2.4.2. Default values for arguments
2.4.3. Order of parameters and arguments
2.4.4. What you can’t do in argument lists
2.5. Local variables and variable assignment
2.5.1. Variables, objects, and references
2.5.2. References in variable assignment and reassignment
2.5.3. References and method arguments
2.5.4. Local variables and the things that look like them
2.6. Summary
3. Organizing objects with classes
3.1. Classes and instances
3.1.1. Instance methods
3.1.2. Overriding methods
3.1.3. Reopening classes
3.2. Instance variables and object state
3.2.1. Initializing an object with state
3.3. Setter methods
3.3.1. The equal sign (=) in method names
3.3.2. Syntactic sugar for assignment-like methods
3.3.3. Setter methods unleashed
3.4. Attributes and the attr_* method family
3.4.1. Automating the creation of attributes
3.4.2. Summary of attr_* methods
3.5. Inheritance and the Ruby class hierarchy
3.5.1. Single inheritance: One to a customer
3.5.3. El Viejo’s older brother: BasicObject
3.6. Classes as objects and message receivers
3.6.1. Creating class objects
3.6.2. How class objects call methods
3.6.3. A singleton method by any other name…
3.6.4. When, and why, to write a class method
3.6.5. Class methods vs. instance methods
3.7. Constants up close
3.7.1. Basic use of constants
3.7.2. Reassigning vs. modifying constants
3.8. Nature vs. nurture in Ruby objects
3.9. Summary
4. Modules and program organization
4.1. Basics of module creation and use
4.1.1. A module encapsulating "stacklikeness"
4.1.2. Mixing a module into a class
4.1.3. Using the module further
4.2. Modules, classes, and method lookup
4.2.1. Illustrating the basics of method lookup
4.2.2. Defining the same method more than once
4.2.3. How prepend works
4.2.4. The rules of method lookup summarized
4.2.5. Going up the method search path with super
4.3. The method_missing method
4.3.1. Combining method_missing and super
4.4. Class/module design and naming
4.4.1. Mix-ins and/or inheritance
4.4.2. Nesting modules and classes
4.5. Summary
5. The default object (self), scope, and visibility
5.1. Understanding self, the current/default object
5.1.1. Who gets to be self, and where
5.1.2. The top-level self object
5.1.3. Self inside class, module, and method definitions
5.1.4. Self as the default receiver of messages
5.1.5. Resolving instance variables through self
5.2. Determining scope
5.2.1. Global scope and global variables
5.2.2. Local scope
5.2.3. The interaction between local scope and self
5.2.4. Scope and resolution of constants
5.2.5. Class variable syntax, scope, and visibility
5.3. Deploying method-access rules
5.3.1. Private methods
5.3.2. Protected methods
5.4. Writing and using top-level methods
5.4.1. Defining a top-level method
5.4.2. Predefined (built-in) top-level methods
5.5. Summary
6. Control-flow techniques
6.1. Conditional code execution
6.1.1. The if keyword and friends
6.1.2. Assignment syntax in condition bodies and tests
6.1.3. case statements
6.2. Repeating actions with loops
6.2.1. Unconditional looping with the loop method
6.2.2. Conditional looping with the while and until keywords
6.2.3. Looping based on a list of values
6.3. Iterators and code blocks6.3.1. The ingredients of iteration
6.3.1. Iteration, home-style
6.3.2. The anatomy of a method call
6.3.3. Curly braces vs. do/end in code block syntax
6.3.4. Implementing times
6.3.5. The importance of being each
6.3.6. From each to map
6.3.7. Block parameters and variable scope
6.4. Error handling and exceptions
6.4.1. Raising and rescuing exceptions
6.4.2. The rescue keyword to the rescue!
6.4.3. Raising exceptions explicitly
6.4.4. Capturing an exception in a rescue clause
6.4.5. The ensure clause
6.4.6. Creating your own exception classes
6.5. Summary
Part 2 Built-in classes and modules
7. Built-in essentials
7.1. Ruby’s literal constructors
7.2. Recurrent syntactic sugar
7.2.1. Defining operators by defining methods
7.2.2. Customizing unary operators
7.3. Bang (!) methods and "danger"
7.3.1. Destructive (receiver-changing) effects as danger
7.3.2. Destructiveness and "danger" vary independently
7.4. Built-in and custom to_* (conversion) methods
7.4.1. String conversion: to_s
7.4.2. Array conversion with to_a and the * operator
7.4.3. Numerical conversion with to_i and to_f
7.4.4. Role-playing to_* methods
7.5. Boolean states, Boolean objects, and nil
7.5.1. True and false as states
7.5.2. true and false as objects
7.5.3. The special object nil
7.6. Comparing two objects
7.6.1. Equality tests
7.6.2. Comparisons and the Comparable module
7.7. Inspecting object capabilities
7.7.1. Listing an object’s methods
7.7.2. Querying class and module objects
7.7.3. Filtered and selected method lists
7.8. Summary
8. Strings, symbols, and other scalar objects
8.1. Working with strings
8.1.1. String notation
8.1.2. Basic string manipulation
8.1.3. Querying strings
8.1.4. String comparison and ordering
8.1.5. String transformation
8.1.6. String conversions
8.1.7. String encoding: A brief introduction
8.2. Symbols and their uses
8.2.1. Chief characteristics of symbols
8.2.2. Symbols and identifiers
8.2.3. Symbols in practice
8.2.4. Strings and symbols in comparison
8.3. Numerical objects
8.3.1. Numerical classes
8.3.2. Performing arithmetic operations
8.4. Times and dates
8.4.1. Instantiating date/time objects
8.4.2. Date/time query methods
8.4.3. Date/time formatting methods
8.4.4. Date/time conversion methods
8.5. Summary
9. Collection and container objects
9.1. Arrays and hashes in comparison
9.2. Collection handling with arrays
9.2.1. Creating a new array
9.2.2. Inserting, retrieving, and removing array elements
9.2.3. Combining arrays with other arrays
9.2.4. Array transformations
9.2.5. Array querying
9.3. Hashes
9.3.1. Creating a new hash
9.3.2. Inserting, retrieving, and removing hash pairs
9.3.3. Specifying default hash values and behavior
9.3.4. Combining hashes with other hashes
9.3.5. Hash transformations
9.3.6. Hash querying
9.3.7. Hashes as final method arguments
9.3.8. A detour back to argument syntax: Named (keyword) arguments
9.4. Ranges
9.4.1. Creating a range
9.4.2. Range-inclusion logic
9.5. Sets
9.5.1. Set creation
9.5.2. Manipulating set elements
9.5.3. Subsets and supersets
9.6. Summary
10. Collections central: Enumerable and Enumerator
10.1. Gaining enumerability through each
10.2. Enumerable Boolean queries
10.3. Enumerable searching and selecting
10.3.1. Getting the first match with find
10.3.2. Getting all matches with find_all (a.k.a. select) and reject
10.3.3. Selecting on threequal matches with grep
10.3.4. Organizing selection results with group_by and partition
10.4. Element-wise enumerable operations
10.4.1. The first method
10.4.2. The take and drop methods
10.4.3. The min and max methods
10.5. Relatives of each
10.5.1. reverse_each
10.5.2. The each_with_index method (and each.with_index)
10.5.3. The each_slice and each_cons methods
10.5.4. The cycle method
10.5.5. Enumerable reduction with inject
10.6. The map method
10.6.1. The return value of map
10.6.2. In-place mapping with map!
10.7. Strings as quasi-enumerables
10.8. Sorting enumerables
10.8.1. Where the Comparable module fits into enumerable sorting (or doesn’t)
10.8.2. Defining sort-order logic with a block
10.8.3. Concise sorting with sort_by
10.9. Enumerators and the next dimension of enumerability
10.9.1. Creating enumerators with a code block
10.9.2. Attaching enumerators to other objects
10.9.3. Implicit creation of enumerators by blockless iterator calls
10.10. Enumerator semantics and uses
10.10.1. How to use an enumerator’s each method
10.10.2. Protecting objects with enumerators
10.10.3. Fine-grained iteration with enumerators
10.10.4. Adding enumerability with an enumerator
10.11. Enumerator method chaining
10.11.1. Economizing on intermediate objects
10.11.2. Indexing enumerables with with_index
10.11.3. Exclusive-or operations on strings with enumerators
10.12. Lazy enumerators
10.12.1. FizzBuzz with a lazy enumerator
10.13. Summary
11. Regular expressions and regexp-based string operations
11.1. What are regular expressions?
11.2. Writing regular expressions
11.2.1. Seeing patterns
11.2.2. Simple matching with literal regular expressions
11.3. Building a pattern in a regular expression
11.3.1. Literal characters in patterns
11.3.2. The dot wildcard character (.)
11.3.3. Character classes
11.4. Matching, substring captures, and MatchData
11.4.1. Capturing submatches with parentheses
11.4.2. Match success and failure
11.4.3. Two ways of getting the captures
11.4.4. Other MatchData information
11.5. Fine-tuning regular expressions with quantifiers, anchors, and modifiers
11.5.1. Constraining matches with quantifiers
11.5.2. Greedy (and non-greedy) quantifiers
11.5.3. Regular expression anchors and assertions
11.5.4. Modifiers
11.6. Converting strings and regular expressions to each other
11.6.1. String-to-regexp idioms
11.6.2. Going from a regular expression to a string
11.7. Common methods that use regular expressions
11.7.1. String#scan
11.7.2. String#split
11.7.3. sub/sub! and gsub/gsub!
11.7.4. Case equality and grep
11.8. Summary
12. File and I/O operations
12.1. How Ruby’s I/O system is put together
12.1.1. The IO class
12.1.2. IO objects as enumerables
12.1.3. STDIN, STDOUT, STDERR
12.1.4. A little more about keyboard input
12.2. Basic file operations
12.2.1. The basics of reading from files
12.2.2. Line-based file reading
12.2.3. Byte- and character-based file reading
12.2.4. Seeking and querying file position
12.2.5. Reading files with File class methods
12.2.6. Writing to files
12.2.7. Using blocks to scope file operations
12.2.8. File enumerability
12.2.9. File I/O exceptions and errors
12.3. Querying IO and File objects
12.3.1. Getting information from the File class and the FileTest module
12.3.2. Deriving file information with File::Stat
12.4. Directory manipulation with the Dir class
12.4.1. Reading a directory’s entries
12.4.2. Directory manipulation and querying
12.5. File tools from the standard library
12.5.1. The FileUtils module
12.5.2. The Pathname class
12.5.3. The StringIO class
12.5.4. The open-uri library
12.6. Summary
Part 3 Ruby dynamics
13. Object individuation
13.1. Where the singleton methods are: The singleton class
13.1.1. Dual determination through singleton classes
13.1.2. Examining and modifying a singleton class directly
13.1.3. Singleton classes on the method-lookup path
13.1.4. The singleton_class method
13.1.5. Class methods in (even more) depth
13.2. Modifying Ruby’s core classes and modules
13.2.1. The risks of changing core functionality
13.2.2. Additive changes
13.2.3. Pass-through overrides
13.2.4. Per-object changes with extend
13.2.5. Using refinements to affect core behavior
13.3. BasicObject as ancestor and class
13.3.1. Using BasicObject
13.3.2. Implementing a subclass of BasicObject
13.4. Summary
14. Callable and runnable objects
14.1. Basic anonymous functions: The Proc class
14.1.1. Proc objects
14.1.2. Procs and blocks and how they differ
14.1.3. Block-proc conversions
14.1.4. Using Symbol#to_proc for conciseness
14.1.5. Procs as closures
14.1.6. Proc parameters and arguments
14.2. Creating functions with lambda and →
14.3. Methods as objects
14.3.1. Capturing Method objects
14.3.2. The rationale for methods as objects
14.4. The eval family of methods
14.4.1. Executing arbitrary strings as code with eval
14.4.2. The dangers of eval
14.4.3. The instance_eval method
14.4.4. Using class_eval (a.k.a. module_eval)
14.5. Parallel execution with threads
14.5.1. Killing, stopping, and starting threads
14.5.2. A threaded date server
14.5.3. Writing a chat server using sockets and threads
14.5.4. Threads and variables
14.5.5. Manipulating thread keys
14.6. Issuing system commands from inside Ruby programs
14.6.1. The system method and backticks
14.6.2. Communicating with programs via open and popen3
14.7. Summary
15. Callbacks, hooks, and runtime introspection
15.1. Callbacks and hooks
15.1.1. Intercepting unrecognized messages with method_missing
15.1.2. Trapping include and prepend operations
15.1.3. Intercepting extend
15.1.4. Intercepting inheritance with Class#inherited
15.1.5. The Module#const_missing method
15.1.6. The method_added and singleton_method_added methods
15.2. Interpreting object capability queries
15.2.1. Listing an object’s non-private methods
15.2.2. Listing private and protected methods
15.2.3. Getting class and module instance methods
15.2.4. Listing objects' singleton methods
15.3. Introspection of variables and constants
15.3.1. Listing local and global variables
15.3.2. Listing instance variables
15.4. Tracing execution
15.4.1. Examining the stack trace with caller
15.4.2. Writing a tool for parsing stack traces
15.5. Callbacks and method inspection in practice
15.5.1. MicroTest background: MiniTest
15.5.2. Specifying and implementing MicroTest
15.6. Summary
index
About the Technology
This is a good time for Ruby! It's powerful like Java or C++, and has dynamic features that let your code react gracefully to changes at runtime. And it's elegant, so creating applications, development tools, and administrative scripts is easier and more straightforward. With the long-awaited Ruby 2, an active development community, and countless libraries and productivity tools, Ruby has come into its own.
About the book
The Well-Grounded Rubyist, Second Edition is a beautifully written tutorial that begins with your first Ruby program and goes on to explore sophisticated topics like callable objects, reflection, and threading. The book concentrates on the language, preparing you to use Ruby in any way you choose. This second edition includes coverage of new Ruby features such as keyword arguments, lazy enumerators, and Module#prepend, along with updated information on new and changed core classes and methods.
What's inside
• Clear explanations of Ruby concepts
• Numerous simple examples
• Updated for Ruby 2.1
• Prepares you to use Ruby anywhere for any purpose
About the author
David A. Black is an internationally known Ruby developer, author, trainer, speaker, event organizer, and founder of Ruby Central, as well as a Lead Consultant at Cyrus Innovation.
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blob: 5ab8f052b3874c7f19e50b9aa12c0ca655fe3834 [file] [log] [blame]
//
// Copyright (C) 2015 The Android Open Source Project
//
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
// You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
// limitations under the License.
//
#include "update_engine/image_properties.h"
#include <string>
#include <vector>
#include <base/files/file_util.h>
#include <base/logging.h>
#include <brillo/key_value_store.h>
#include "update_engine/common/constants.h"
#include "update_engine/common/hardware_interface.h"
#include "update_engine/common/platform_constants.h"
#include "update_engine/common/utils.h"
#include "update_engine/system_state.h"
namespace {
const char kLsbRelease[] = "/etc/lsb-release";
const char kLsbReleaseAppIdKey[] = "CHROMEOS_RELEASE_APPID";
const char kLsbReleaseAutoUpdateServerKey[] = "CHROMEOS_AUSERVER";
const char kLsbReleaseBoardAppIdKey[] = "CHROMEOS_BOARD_APPID";
const char kLsbReleaseBoardKey[] = "CHROMEOS_RELEASE_BOARD";
const char kLsbReleaseCanaryAppIdKey[] = "CHROMEOS_CANARY_APPID";
const char kLsbReleaseIsPowerwashAllowedKey[] = "CHROMEOS_IS_POWERWASH_ALLOWED";
const char kLsbReleaseUpdateChannelKey[] = "CHROMEOS_RELEASE_TRACK";
const char kLsbReleaseVersionKey[] = "CHROMEOS_RELEASE_VERSION";
const char kDefaultAppId[] = "{87efface-864d-49a5-9bb3-4b050a7c227a}";
// A prefix added to the path, used for testing.
const char* root_prefix = nullptr;
std::string GetStringWithDefault(const brillo::KeyValueStore& store,
const std::string& key,
const std::string& default_value) {
std::string result;
if (store.GetString(key, &result))
return result;
LOG(INFO) << "Cannot load ImageProperty " << key << ", using default value "
<< default_value;
return default_value;
}
enum class LsbReleaseSource {
kSystem,
kStateful,
};
// Loads the lsb-release properties into the key-value |store| reading the file
// from either the system image or the stateful partition as specified by
// |source|. The loaded values are added to the store, possibly overriding
// existing values.
void LoadLsbRelease(LsbReleaseSource source, brillo::KeyValueStore* store) {
std::string path;
if (root_prefix)
path = root_prefix;
if (source == LsbReleaseSource::kStateful)
path += chromeos_update_engine::kStatefulPartition;
store->Load(base::FilePath(path + kLsbRelease));
}
} // namespace
namespace chromeos_update_engine {
namespace test {
void SetImagePropertiesRootPrefix(const char* test_root_prefix) {
root_prefix = test_root_prefix;
}
} // namespace test
ImageProperties LoadImageProperties(SystemState* system_state) {
ImageProperties result;
brillo::KeyValueStore lsb_release;
LoadLsbRelease(LsbReleaseSource::kSystem, &lsb_release);
result.current_channel = GetStringWithDefault(
lsb_release, kLsbReleaseUpdateChannelKey, "stable-channel");
// In dev-mode and unofficial build we can override the image properties set
// in the system image with the ones from the stateful partition, except the
// channel of the current image.
HardwareInterface* const hardware = system_state->hardware();
if (!hardware->IsOfficialBuild() || !hardware->IsNormalBootMode())
LoadLsbRelease(LsbReleaseSource::kStateful, &lsb_release);
// The release_app_id is used as the default appid, but can be override by
// the board appid in the general case or the canary appid for the canary
// channel only.
std::string release_app_id =
GetStringWithDefault(lsb_release, kLsbReleaseAppIdKey, kDefaultAppId);
result.product_id = GetStringWithDefault(
lsb_release, kLsbReleaseBoardAppIdKey, release_app_id);
result.canary_product_id = GetStringWithDefault(
lsb_release, kLsbReleaseCanaryAppIdKey, release_app_id);
result.board = GetStringWithDefault(lsb_release, kLsbReleaseBoardKey, "");
result.version = GetStringWithDefault(lsb_release, kLsbReleaseVersionKey, "");
result.omaha_url =
GetStringWithDefault(lsb_release,
kLsbReleaseAutoUpdateServerKey,
constants::kOmahaDefaultProductionURL);
// Build fingerprint not used in Chrome OS.
result.build_fingerprint = "";
result.allow_arbitrary_channels = false;
return result;
}
MutableImageProperties LoadMutableImageProperties(SystemState* system_state) {
MutableImageProperties result;
brillo::KeyValueStore lsb_release;
LoadLsbRelease(LsbReleaseSource::kSystem, &lsb_release);
LoadLsbRelease(LsbReleaseSource::kStateful, &lsb_release);
result.target_channel = GetStringWithDefault(
lsb_release, kLsbReleaseUpdateChannelKey, "stable-channel");
if (!lsb_release.GetBoolean(kLsbReleaseIsPowerwashAllowedKey,
&result.is_powerwash_allowed))
result.is_powerwash_allowed = false;
return result;
}
bool StoreMutableImageProperties(SystemState* system_state,
const MutableImageProperties& properties) {
brillo::KeyValueStore lsb_release;
LoadLsbRelease(LsbReleaseSource::kStateful, &lsb_release);
lsb_release.SetString(kLsbReleaseUpdateChannelKey, properties.target_channel);
lsb_release.SetBoolean(kLsbReleaseIsPowerwashAllowedKey,
properties.is_powerwash_allowed);
std::string root_prefix_str = root_prefix ? root_prefix : "";
base::FilePath path(root_prefix_str + kStatefulPartition + kLsbRelease);
if (!base::DirectoryExists(path.DirName()))
base::CreateDirectory(path.DirName());
return lsb_release.Save(path);
}
void LogImageProperties() {
std::string lsb_release;
if (utils::ReadFile(kLsbRelease, &lsb_release)) {
LOG(INFO) << "lsb-release inside the old rootfs:\n" << lsb_release;
}
std::string stateful_lsb_release;
if (utils::ReadFile(std::string(kStatefulPartition) + kLsbRelease,
&stateful_lsb_release)) {
LOG(INFO) << "stateful lsb-release:\n" << stateful_lsb_release;
}
}
} // namespace chromeos_update_engine
|
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|
71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
|
-3,544,112,037,973,179,400
|
Skip Headers
Oracle® Database Backup and Recovery User's Guide
11g Release 2 (11.2)
Part Number E10642-01
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5 Configuring the RMAN Environment
This chapter explains the most basic tasks involved in configuring RMAN. This chapter includes the following topics:
Note:
Configuring RMAN for the Oracle Secure Backup (OSB) Cloud Module, see Appendix C in the Oracle Database Backup and Recovery Reference.
See Also:
Chapter 6, "Configuring the RMAN Environment: Advanced Topics" to learn about configuration options not covered in this chapter, including backup compression and encryption
Configuring the Environment for RMAN Backups
For most parameters required for backups, RMAN provides sensible defaults that enable you to perform basic backup and recovery. When implementing an RMAN-based backup strategy, you can use RMAN more effectively if you understand the more common configurations.
To simplify ongoing use of RMAN, you can set a number of persistent configuration settings for each target database. These settings control many aspects of RMAN behavior. For example, you can configure the backup retention policy, default destinations for backups, default backup device type, and so on. You can use the SHOW and CONFIGURE commands to view and change RMAN configurations.
This section explains what an RMAN configuration is and how you can use the CONFIGURE command to change RMAN default behavior for your backup and recovery environment. This section also introduces the major settings available to you and their most common values.
Note:
If you plan to back up to tape, then refer to "Configuring RMAN to Make Backups to a Media Manager" to learn how to set up RMAN for use with a media manager.
This section includes the following topics:
See Also:
Oracle Database Backup and Recovery Reference for CONFIGURE syntax
Showing and Clearing Persistent RMAN Configurations
You can use the SHOW command to display the current value of RMAN configured settings for the target database. You can also view whether these commands are currently set to their default values.
To view or change your CONFIGURE command settings:
1. Start RMAN and connect to a target database and a recovery catalog (if used).
2. Run the RMAN SHOW command.
For example, run SHOW ALL as shown in Example 5-1 (sample output included). The output includes parameters you have changed and that are set to the default. The configuration is displayed as the series of RMAN commands required to re-create the configuration. You can save the output in a text file and use this command file to re-create the configuration on the same or a different database.
Example 5-1 SHOW ALL Command
SHOW ALL;
RMAN configuration parameters for database with db_unique_name PROD1 are:
CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY TO RECOVERY WINDOW OF 3 DAYS;
CONFIGURE BACKUP OPTIMIZATION ON;
CONFIGURE DEFAULT DEVICE TYPE TO DISK; # default
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP ON;
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE SBT_TAPE TO '%F'; # default
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK TO '%F'; # default
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE 'SBT_TAPE' PARALLELISM 2 BACKUP TYPE TO COMPRESSED BACKUPSET;
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE DISK PARALLELISM 1 BACKUP TYPE TO BACKUPSET; # default
CONFIGURE DATAFILE BACKUP COPIES FOR DEVICE TYPE SBT_TAPE TO 1; # default
CONFIGURE DATAFILE BACKUP COPIES FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK TO 1; # default
CONFIGURE ARCHIVELOG BACKUP COPIES FOR DEVICE TYPE SBT_TAPE TO 1; # default
CONFIGURE ARCHIVELOG BACKUP COPIES FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK TO 1; # default
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE 'SBT_TAPE' PARMS 'ENV=(OB_DEVICE=tape1)';
CONFIGURE MAXSETSIZE TO UNLIMITED; # default
CONFIGURE ENCRYPTION FOR DATABASE OFF; # default
CONFIGURE ENCRYPTION ALGORITHM 'AES128'; # default
CONFIGURE ARCHIVELOG DELETION POLICY TO NONE; # default
CONFIGURE SNAPSHOT CONTROLFILE NAME TO '/disk1/oracle/dbs/snapcf_ev.f'; # default
You can also use the SHOW command with the name of a particular configuration. For example, you can view the retention policy and default device type as follows:
SHOW RETENTION POLICY;
SHOW DEFAULT DEVICE TYPE;
3. Optionally, use the CONFIGURE ... CLEAR command to return any configuration to its default value, as shown in the following examples:
CONFIGURE BACKUP OPTIMIZATION CLEAR;
CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY CLEAR;
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK CLEAR;
Configuring the Default Device for Backups: Disk or SBT
Backups for which no destination device type is specified are directed to the configured default device. RMAN is preconfigured to use disk as the default device type. No additional configuration is necessary.
You may need to change the default device type from disk to tape, or change it back from tape to disk. Table 5-1 shows the commands that configure the default device.
Table 5-1 Commands to Configure the Default Device Type
Command Explanation
CONFIGURE DEFAULT DEVICE TYPE TO DISK
Specifies that backups should go to disk by default.
If a recovery area is enabled, then the backup location defaults to the fast recovery area. Otherwise, the backup location defaults to an operating system-specific directory on disk.
When backing up to disk, the logical block size of the database file must be an even multiple of the physical block size of the destination device. For example, a device of type DISK with a block size of 2 KB can only be used as a destination for backups of database files with logical block sizes of 2 KB, 4 KB, 6 KB, and so on. Most disk drives have physical block sizes of 512 bytes, so this limitation rarely affects backup to disk drives. Nevertheless, you can encounter this limitation when backing up to a writable DVD or a device that has a larger physical block size.
CONFIGURE DEFAULT DEVICE TYPE TO sbt
Specifies that backups should go to tape by default.
"Configuring RMAN to Make Backups to a Media Manager" explains how to set up RMAN for use with a media manager. After RMAN is able to communicate with the media manager, you can configure RMAN to make backups to tape and specify SBT as the default device type.
You can always override the default device by using the DEVICE TYPE clause of the BACKUP command, as shown in the following examples:
BACKUP DEVICE TYPE sbt DATABASE;
BACKUP DEVICE TYPE DISK DATABASE;
To change the configured default device type:
1. Start RMAN and connect to a target database and a recovery catalog (if used).
2. Run the SHOW ALL command to show the currently configured default device.
3. Run the CONFIGURE DEFAULT DEVICE TYPE command, specifying either TO DISK or TO sbt.
See Also:
Oracle Database Backup and Recovery Reference for more details on using the BACKUP command with the DEVICE TYPE clause
Configuring the Default Type for Backups: Backup Sets or Copies
The BACKUP command can create either backup sets or image copies. For disk, you can configure RMAN to create either backup sets or image copies as its default backup type with the CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE DISK BACKUP TYPE TO command. The default backup type for disk is an uncompressed backup set.
Note:
Because RMAN can write an image copy only to disk, the backup type for tape can only be a backup set.
RMAN can create backup sets using binary compression. You can configure RMAN to use compressed backup sets by default on a device type by specifying the COMPRESSED option in the BACKUP TYPE TO ... BACKUPSET clause. To disable compression, use the CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE command with arguments specifying your other desired settings, but omit the COMPRESSED keyword.
To configure the default type of backup:
1. Start RMAN and connect to a target database and a recovery catalog (if used).
2. Configure backup sets or image copies as the default backup type.
The following examples configure the backup type for disk backups to copies and backup sets:
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE DISK BACKUP TYPE TO COPY; # image copies
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE DISK BACKUP TYPE TO BACKUPSET; # uncompressed
The following examples configure compression for backup sets:
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE DISK BACKUP TYPE TO COMPRESSED BACKUPSET;
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE sbt BACKUP TYPE TO COMPRESSED BACKUPSET;
Configuring Channels
As explained in "RMAN Channels", an RMAN channel is a connection to a database server session. RMAN uses channels to perform almost all RMAN tasks.
About Channel Configuration
Use the CONFIGURE CHANNEL command to configure options for disk or SBT channels. CONFIGURE CHANNEL takes the same options used to specify one-time options with the ALLOCATE CHANNEL command. You can configure generic channel settings for a device type, that is, a template that is used for any channels created based on configured settings for that device.
Note:
This section explains configuration of disk channels. To learn how to configure channels for tape, see "Configuring SBT Channels for Use with a Media Manager".
If you use CONFIGURE CHANNEL to specify generic channel settings for a device, any previous settings are discarded, even if the settings are not in conflict. For example, after the second CONFIGURE CHANNEL command, which specifies only the FORMAT for configured disk channels, the MAXPIECESIZE for the disk channel is returned to its default value:
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE DISK MAXPIECESIZE 2G;
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE DISK FORMAT /tmp/%U;
Configuring Channels for Disk
By default, RMAN allocates one disk channel for all operations. You may want to specify different options for this channel, for example, a new default location for backups. Example 5-2 configures RMAN to write disk backups to the /disk1 directory and specifies a nondefault format for the relative filename:
Example 5-2 Configuring a Nondefault Backup Location
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE DISK FORMAT '/disk1/ora_df%t_s%s_s%p';
In Example 5-2, RMAN automatically replaces the format specifier %t with a four byte time stamp, %s with the backup set number, and %p with the backup piece number.
Note:
By configuring an explicit format for disk channels, RMAN does not create backups by default in the fast recovery area. In this case, you lose the disk space management capabilities of the fast recovery area.
You can also specify an ASM disk location, as shown in the following example:
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE DISK FORMAT '+dgroup1';
See Also:
"Backing Up Database Files with RMAN" to learn how to make backups
Configuring Channel Parallelism for Disk and SBT Devices
The number of channels available for a device type when you run a command determines whether RMAN reads or writes in parallel. As a rule, the number of channels used in executing a command should match the number of devices accessed. Thus, for tape backups, allocate one channel for each tape drive. For disk backups, allocate one channel for each physical disk, unless you can optimize the backup for your disk subsystem architecture with multiple channels. Failing to allocate the right number of channels adversely affects RMAN performance during I/O operations.
You can configure channel parallelism settings, binary compression for backup sets, and other options for an SBT device with CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE sbt. You set the configuration for the device type independently of the channel configuration.
Example 5-3 changes the parallelism for the SBT device (sample output included) so that RMAN can back up to a media manager using two tape drives in parallel. Each configured SBT channel backs up roughly half the total data.
Example 5-3 Configuring Parallelism for an SBT Device
RMAN> CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE sbt PARALLELISM 2;
old RMAN configuration parameters:
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE 'SBT_TAPE' BACKUP TYPE TO COMPRESSED BACKUPSET PARALLELISM 1;
new RMAN configuration parameters:
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE 'SBT_TAPE' PARALLELISM 2 BACKUP TYPE TO COMPRESSED BACKUPSET;
new RMAN configuration parameters are successfully stored
Example 5-4 changes the default backup type for the SBT device to an uncompressed backup set (sample output included).
Example 5-4 Configuring the Backup Type for an SBT Device
RMAN> CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE sbt BACKUP TYPE TO BACKUPSET;
old RMAN configuration parameters:
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE 'SBT_TAPE' PARALLELISM 2 BACKUP TYPE TO COMPRESSED BACKUPSET;
new RMAN configuration parameters:
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE 'SBT_TAPE' BACKUP TYPE TO BACKUPSET PARALLELISM 2;
new RMAN configuration parameters are successfully stored
The CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE commands used in this example to set parallelism and backup type do not affect the values of settings not specified. In Example 5-3, the default backup type of compressed backup set was not changed by changing the parallelism. In Example 5-4, the parallelism was not changed by changing the default backup type.
See Also:
Manually Overriding Configured Channels
If you manually allocate a channel during a job, then RMAN disregards any configured channel settings. For example, assume that the default device type is SBT, and you execute the following command:
RUN
{
ALLOCATE CHANNEL c1 DEVICE TYPE DISK;
BACKUP TABLESPACE users;
}
In this case, RMAN uses only the disk channel that you manually allocated within the RUN command, overriding any defaults set by using CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE, CONFIGURE DEFAULT DEVICE, or CONFIGURE CHANNEL settings.
See Also:
Configuring Control File and Server Parameter File Autobackups
As explained in "Control File and Server Parameter File Autobackups", you can configure RMAN to automatically back up the control file and server parameter file. The autobackup occurs whenever a backup record is added. If the database runs in ARCHIVELOG mode, then an autobackup is also taken whenever the database structure metadata in the control file changes. A control file autobackup enables RMAN to recover the database even if the current control file, recovery catalog, and server parameter file are lost.
Because the filename for the autobackup follows a well-known format, RMAN can search for it without access to a repository and then restore the server parameter file. After you have started the instance with the restored server parameter file, RMAN can restore the control file from an autobackup. After you mount the control file, the RMAN repository is available and RMAN can restore the datafiles and find the archived redo logs.
You can enable the autobackup feature by running the following command:
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP ON;
You can disable the feature by running the following command:
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP OFF;
See Also:
Oracle Database Backup and Recovery Reference for CONFIGURE syntax
Configuring the Control File Autobackup Format
By default, the format of the autobackup file for all configured devices is the substitution variable %F in the FORMAT clause. This variable format translates into c-IIIIIIIIII-YYYYMMDD-QQ, with the placeholders defined as follows:
• IIIIIIIIII stands for the DBID.
• YYYYMMDD is a time stamp of the day the backup is generated.
• QQ is the hexadecimal sequence that starts with 00 and has a maximum of FF.
You can change the default format by using the following command, where deviceSpecifier is any valid device type, and 'string' must contain the substitution variable %F (and no other substitution variables) and is a valid handle for the specified device:
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT
FOR DEVICE TYPE deviceSpecifier TO 'string';
For example, you can run the following command to specify a nondefault filename for the control file autobackup. In the filename, ? stands for ORACLE_HOME.
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT
FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK TO '?/oradata/cf_%F';
The following example configures the autobackup to write to an Automatic Storage Management disk group:
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT
FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK TO '+dgroup1/%F';
To clear control file autobackup formats for a device, use the following commands:
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK CLEAR;
CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE sbt CLEAR;
If you have set up a fast recovery area for the database, then you can direct control file autobackups to the fast recovery area by clearing the control file autobackup format for disk.
Note:
All files in the fast recovery area are maintained by Oracle and associated filenames are maintained in the Oracle Managed Files (OMF) format.
Overriding the Configured Control File Autobackup Format
The SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT command, which you can specify either within a RUN command or at the RMAN prompt, overrides the configured autobackup format in the current session only. The order of precedence is:
1. SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT (within a RUN block)
2. SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT (at RMAN prompt)
3. CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT
The following example shows how the two forms of SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT interact:
SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK TO 'controlfile_%F';
BACKUP AS COPY DATABASE;
RUN
{
SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK TO '/tmp/%F.bck';
BACKUP AS BACKUPSET
DEVICE TYPE DISK
DATABASE;
}
The first SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT controls the name of the control file autobackup until the RMAN client exits, overriding any configured control file autobackup format. The SET CONTROFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT in the RUN block overrides the SET CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT outside the RUN block for the duration of the RUN block.
Configuring RMAN to Make Backups to a Media Manager
On most platforms, to back up to and restore from sequential media such as tape you must integrate a media manager with your Oracle database. You can use Oracle Secure Backup, which supports both database and file system backups to tape, as your media manager. You should refer to Oracle Secure Backup Administrator's Guide to learn how to set up RMAN for use specifically with Oracle Secure Backup.
If you do not use Oracle Secure Backup, then you can use a third-party media manager. This section describes the generic steps for configuring RMAN for use with a third-party media manager. The actual steps depend on the media management product that you install and the platform on which you are running the database. If you choose to use RMAN with a media manager other than Oracle Secure Backup, then you must obtain all product-specific information from the vendor.
Read the following sections in order when configuring the media manager:
1. Prerequisites for Using a Media Manager with RMAN
2. Determining the Location of the Media Management Library
3. Configuring Media Management Software for RMAN Backups
4. Testing Whether the Media Manager Library Is Integrated Correctly
5. Configuring SBT Channels for Use with a Media Manager
See Also:
"Media Management" for an overview of media management software and its implications for RMAN
Prerequisites for Using a Media Manager with RMAN
Before you can begin using RMAN with a third-party media manager, you must install it and make sure that RMAN can communicate with it. Refer to the media management vendor's software documentation for instructions.
In general, you should begin by installing and configuring the media management software on the target host or production network. Ensure that you can make non-RMAN backups of operating system files on the target database host. This step makes later troubleshooting much easier by confirming that the basic integration of the media manager with the target host has been successful. Refer to your media management documentation to learn how to back up files to the media manager without using RMAN.
Then, obtain and install the third-party media management module for integration with the database server. This module contains the media management library that the Oracle database loads and uses when accessing the media manager. It is generally a third-party product which must be purchased separately. Contact your media management vendor for details.
Determining the Location of the Media Management Library
Before attempting to use RMAN with a media manager, determine the location of the media management library. When allocating or configuring a channel for RMAN to use to communicate with a media manager, you must specify the SBT_LIBRARY parameter in an ALLOCATE CHANNEL or CONFIGURE CHANNEL command. The SBT_LIBRARY parameter specifies the path to the library.
The following example shows the channel syntax, where pathname is the absolute filename of the library:
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE sbt
PARMS 'SBT_LIBRARY=pathname';
When RMAN allocates channels to communicate with a media manager, it attempts to load the library indicated by the SBT_LIBRARY parameter.
If you do not provide a value for the SBT_LIBRARY parameter in an allocated or preconfigured channel, then RMAN looks in a platform-specific and secured default location.
On Linux and UNIX, the SBT library is loaded from:
/opt/oracle/extapi/[32,64]/{SBT}/{VENDOR}/{VERSION}/libobk.so
The SBT library filename extension name varies according to platform: .so, .sl on HP-UX, .a on AIX,
On Windows, the SBT library is loaded from:
%SYSTEM_DRIVE%\oracle\extapi\[32,64]\{SBT}\{VENDOR}\{VERSION}\orasbt.dll
If RMAN is unable to use the secured default location or if you are using Oracle Database 11g Release 0 or earlier, RMAN loads the SBT library from the location designated by the environment variables PATH or LIBPATH.
In some cases, your organization may have security or regulatory compliance requirements that prohibit the use of environment variables PATH or LIBPATH to designate a library directory. If you need to disable this behavior, you can set the PARMS string to the following: SBT_SECURE=1.
Note:
The default media management library file is not part of the standard database installation. It is only present if you install third-party media management software.
See Also:
Your operating system-specific database documentation and the documentation supplied by your media vendor for instructions on how to achieve media manager integration on your platform
Configuring Media Management Software for RMAN Backups
After installing the media management software, perform whatever configuration that your vendor requires so that the software can accept RMAN backups. Depending on the type of media management software that you installed, you may have to define media pools, configure users and classes, and so on.
Consult your media management vendor documentation for the appropriate RMAN settings. The PARMS parameter sends instructions to the media manager. If PARMS values are needed for the ALLOCATE CHANNEL or the CONFIGURE CHANNEL command, or if a FORMAT string is recommended for the BACKUP or CONFIGURE command, then refer to the vendor documentation for this information.
Example 5-5 shows a PARMS setting for Oracle Secure Backup. This PARMS settings instructs the media manager to back up to a family of tapes called datafile_mf. The PARMS settings are always vendor-specific.
Example 5-5 PARMS Setting for Oracle Secure Backup
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE 'SBT_TAPE'
PARMS 'ENV=(OB_MEDIA_FAMILY=datafile_mf)';
See Also:
Testing Whether the Media Manager Library Is Integrated Correctly
After you have confirmed that the database server can load the media management library, test to make sure that RMAN can back up to the media manager.
Testing ALLOCATE CHANNEL on the Media Manager
The following steps use the ALLOCATE CHANNEL command to perform a basic test that RMAN is able to communicate with the media manager.
To test channel allocation on the media manager:
1. Start RMAN and connect to a target database and a recovery catalog (if used).
2. Run the ALLOCATE CHANNEL command with the PARMS required by your media management software.
The following RUN command shows sample vendor-specific PARMS settings:
RUN
{
ALLOCATE CHANNEL c1 DEVICE TYPE sbt
PARMS 'SBT_LIBRARY=/mydir/lib/libobk.so,
ENV=(OB_DEVICE=drive1,OB_MEDIA_FAMILY=datafile_mf)';
}
3. Examine the RMAN output.
If you do not receive an error message, then the database successfully loaded the media management library. If you receive the ORA-27211 error, the media management library could not be loaded:
RMAN-00571: ===========================================================
RMAN-00569: =============== ERROR MESSAGE STACK FOLLOWS ===============
RMAN-00571: ===========================================================
RMAN-03009: failure of allocate command on c1 channel at 11/30/2007 13:57:18
ORA-19554: error allocating device, device type: SBT_TAPE, device name:
ORA-27211: Failed to load Media Management Library
Additional information: 25
In this case, you must check the media management installation to make sure that the library is correctly installed, and re-check the value for the SBT_LIBRARY parameter as described in "Determining the Location of the Media Management Library".
If the database is unable to locate a media management library in the location specified by the SBT_LIBRARY parameter or the default location, then RMAN issues an ORA-27211 error and exits.
Whenever channel allocation fails, the database writes a trace file to the trace subdirectory in the Automatic Diagnostic Repository (ADR) home directory. The following shows sample output:
SKGFQ OSD: Error in function sbtinit on line 2278
SKGFQ OSD: Look for SBT Trace messages in file /oracle/rdbms/log/sbtio.log
SBT Initialize failed for /oracle/lib/libobk.so
See Also:
Oracle Database Administrator's Guide to learn how to use the Automatic Diagnostic Repository to monitor database operations
Testing Backup and Restore Operations on the Media Manager
After testing a channel allocation on the media manager, create and restore a test backup. For example, you can use the command in Example 5-6 (substituting the channel settings required by your media management vendor) to test whether a backup can be created on the media manager. If your database does not use a server parameter file, then back up the current control file instead.
Example 5-6 Backing Up the Server Parameter File to Tape
RUN
{
ALLOCATE CHANNEL c1 DEVICE TYPE sbt
PARMS 'SBT_LIBRARY=/mydir/lib/libobk.so,
ENV=(OB_DEVICE=drive1,OB_MEDIA_FAMILY=datafile_mf)';
BACKUP SPFILE;
# If your database does not use a server parameter file, use:
# BACKUP CURRENT CONTROLFILE;
}
If the backup succeeds, then attempt to restore the server parameter file as an initialization parameter file. Example 5-7 restores the backup created in Example 5-6 to a temporary directory.
Example 5-7 Restoring the Server Parameter File from Tape
RUN
{
ALLOCATE CHANNEL c1 DEVICE TYPE sbt
PARMS 'SBT_LIBRARY=/mydir/lib/libobk.so,
ENV=(OB_DEVICE=drive1,OB_MEDIA_FAMILY=datafile_mf)';
RESTORE SPFILE TO PFILE '/tmp/test_restore.f';
# If your database does not use a server parameter file, use:
# RESTORE CURRENT CONTROLFILE TO '/tmp/test_restore.f';
}
If the backup and restore operations succeed, then you are ready to use the media manager with RMAN. Possible failures include the following cases:
• The backup hangs.
A hanging backup usually indicates that the media manager is waiting to mount a tape. Check if there are any media manager jobs in tape mount request mode and fix the problem. Ensure that the steps in "Configuring RMAN to Make Backups to a Media Manager" are correctly done.
• The backup fails with ORA-27211: Failed to load Media Management Library.
This error indicates that the media management software is not correctly configured. Ensure that the steps in "Configuring RMAN to Make Backups to a Media Manager" are correctly done. Also, ensure that you have the correct PARMS and FORMAT strings required by your media management software.
Configuring SBT Channels for Use with a Media Manager
This section describes how to configure channels for use with a media manager. For an overview of configured channels and how they are used, refer to the section "Configuring Advanced Channel Options".
About Media Manager Backup Piece Names
A backup piece name is determined by the FORMAT string specified in the BACKUP command, CONFIGURE CHANNEL command, or ALLOCATE CHANNEL command. The media manager considers the backup piece name as the name of the backup file, so every backup piece must have a unique name in the media management catalog.
You can use the substitution variables in a FORMAT parameter to generate unique backup piece names. For example, %d specifies the name of the database, whereas %t specifies the backup timestamp. For most purposes, you can use %U, in which case RMAN automatically generates a unique filename. The backup piece name 12i1nk47_1_1 is an example. If you do not specify the FORMAT parameter, then RMAN automatically generates a unique filename with the %U substitution variable.
Your media manager may impose restrictions on file names and sizes. In this case, you may need more fine-grained control over the naming of backup pieces so that they obey media manager restrictions. For example, some media managers only support a 14-character backup piece name, and some require special FORMAT strings. The unique names generated by the %U substitution variable do not exceed 14 characters.
Some media managers may have limits on the maximum size of files that they can back up or restore. You must ensure that RMAN does not produce backup sets larger than those limits. To limit backup piece sizes, use the parameter MAXPIECESIZE, which you can set in the CONFIGURE CHANNEL and ALLOCATE CHANNEL commands.
See Also:
Configuring Automatic SBT Channels
The easiest technique for backing up to a media manager is to configure automatic SBT channels. As explained in "Configuring the Default Device for Backups: Disk or SBT", you can use a tape device as your default backup destination.
To configure channels for use with a media manager:
1. Configure a generic SBT channel.
In the configuration enter all parameters that you tested in the section "Testing Backup and Restore Operations on the Media Manager". The following example configures vendor-specific channel parameters and sets the default device:
CONFIGURE CHANNEL DEVICE TYPE sbt
PARMS 'ENV=(OB_RESOURCE_WAIT_TIME=1minute,OB_DEVICE=tape1)';
2. Configure the default device type to SBT, as shown in the following command:
CONFIGURE DEFAULT DEVICE TYPE TO sbt;
If you use more than one tape device, then you must specify the channel parallelism as described in "Configuring Channel Parallelism for Disk and SBT Devices". The following configuration enables you to back up to two tape drives in parallel:
CONFIGURE DEVICE TYPE sbt PARALLELISM 2;
Optionally, check your channel configuration by running the following command:
SHOW CHANNEL FOR DEVICE TYPE sbt;
3. Make a test backup to tape.
The following command backs up the server parameter file to tape:
BACKUP SPFILE;
4. List your backups to make sure that the test backup went to the media manager:
LIST BACKUP OF SPFILE;
Configuring the Fast Recovery Area
As explained in "Fast Recovery Area", the fast recovery area feature enables you to set up a disk area where the database can create and manage a variety of files related to backup and recovery. Use of the fast recovery area is strongly recommended. Consider configuring a fast recovery area as one of the first steps in implementing a backup strategy.
This section outlines the functions of the fast recovery area, identifies the files stored there, explains the rules for file management, and introduces the most important configuration options. This section contains the following topics:
Overview of the Fast Recovery Area
The fast recovery area can contain control files, online redo logs, archived redo logs, flashback logs, and RMAN backups. Files in the recovery area are permanent or transient. Permanent files are active files used by the database instance. All files that are not permanent are transient. In general, Oracle Database eventually deletes transient files after they become obsolete under the backup retention policy or have been backed up to tape.
The fast recovery area is an Oracle managed space which can be used to hold RMAN disk backups, control file autobackups and archived redo log files. The files placed in this location are maintained by Oracle and the generated filenames are maintained in Oracle Managed Files (OMF) format.
Table 5-2 describes the files in the recovery area, the classification of each file as permanent or temporary, and how database availability is affected.
Table 5-2 Files in the Fast Recovery Area
Files Type Database Behavior When Fast Recovery Area Is Inaccessible
Multiplexed copies of the current control file
Permanent
The instance fails if the database cannot write to a multiplexed copy of the control file stored in the fast recovery area. Failure occurs even if accessible multiplexed copies are located outside the recovery area.
See Also: "Configuring Control File Locations" to learn how to configure control files in the recovery area
Online redo log files
Permanent
Instance availability is not affected if a mirrored copy of the online redo log exists in an accessible location outside the fast recovery area. Otherwise, the instance fails.
See Also: "Configuring Online Redo Log Locations" to learn how to configure online redo logs in the recovery area
Archived redo log files
Transient
Instance availability is not affected if the log is archived to an accessible location outside the fast recovery area. Otherwise, the database eventually halts because it cannot archive the online redo logs.
See Also: "Configuring Archived Redo Log Locations" to learn how to configure archived redo logs in the recovery area
Foreign archived redo log files
Transient
Instance availability is not affected.
Note: Foreign archived redo logs are received by a logical standby database for a LogMiner session. Unlike a normal archived log, a foreign archived redo log has a different DBID. For this reason, it cannot be backed up or restored on a logical standby database.
Image copies of datafiles and control files
Transient
Instance availability is not affected.
Backup pieces
Transient
Instance availability is not affected.
Flashback logs
Transient
Instance availability is not affected if guaranteed restore points are not defined. In this case, the database automatically disables Flashback Database, writes a message to the alert log, and continues with database processing. If guaranteed restore points are configured, the instance fails because of interdependencies on the flashback logs.
The Oracle Flashback Database feature, which provides a convenient alternative to database point-in-time recovery (DBPITR), generates flashback logs. These logs are transient files and must be stored in the fast recovery area. Unlike other transient files, flashback logs cannot be backed up to other media. If the fast recovery area has insufficient space to store flashback logs and meet other backup retention requirements, then the recovery area may delete flashback logs.
See Also: "Enabling Flashback Database" to learn how to enable flashback logging
If you are on a Windows platform, then you can use the Volume Shadow Copy Service (VSS) in conjunction with the Oracle VSS writer. In this case, the fast recovery area automates management of files that are already backed up in a VSS snapshot and deletes them as needed.
Oracle Managed Files and Automatic Storage Management
The fast recovery area can be used in conjunction with Oracle Managed Files (OMF) and Automatic Storage Management (ASM). The fast recovery area is built on top of OMF, so the fast recovery area can be stored anywhere Oracle Managed Files can. You can also use the recovery area with ASM.
Even if you choose not to set up the fast recovery area in ASM storage, you can still use Oracle Managed Files to manage your backup files in an ASM disk group. Although you lose one of the major benefits of the fast recovery area: the automatic deletion of files no longer needed to meet your recoverability goals as space is needed for more recent backups. Nevertheless, the other automatic features of OMF still function.
When storing backups, using OMF on top of ASM without using a fast recovery area is supported but discouraged. It is awkward to directly manipulate files under ASM.
How Oracle Manages Disk Space in the Fast Recovery Area
Space in the fast recovery area is balanced among backups and archived logs that must be kept according to the retention policy, and other files which may be subject to deletion. Oracle Database does not delete eligible files from the fast recovery area until the space must be reclaimed for some other purpose. Thus, files recently moved to tape are often still available on disk for use in recovery. The recovery area can thus serve as a cache for tape. When the fast recovery area is full, Oracle Database automatically deletes eligible files to reclaim space in the recovery area as needed.
Enabling the Fast Recovery Area
You enable the fast recovery area by setting two initialization parameters. These parameters enable the fast recovery area without having to shut down and restart the database instance.
You set the size of the fast recovery area with the parameter DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE first and then you set the physical location of the flash recovery files with the parameter DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST.
Table 5-3 discusses both the mandatory and optional parameters for enabling the fast recovery area.
In an Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC) database, all instances must have the same values for these initialization parameters. The location must be on a cluster file system, ASM, or a shared directory.
Table 5-3 Initialization Parameters for the Fast Recovery Area
Initialization Parameter Required Description
DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE
Yes
Specifies the disk quota, which is maximum storage in bytes of data to be used by the recovery area for this database. You must set this parameter before DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST.
The DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE setting does not include the following kinds of disk overhead:
• Block 0 or the operating system block header of each Oracle file is not included.
Allow an extra 10% for this data when computing the actual disk usage required for the fast recovery area.
• DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE does not indicate the real size occupied on disk when the underlying file system is mirrored, compressed, or affected by overhead not known to Oracle Database.
For example, if the recovery area is on a two-way mirrored ASM disk group, each file of x bytes occupies 2x bytes on the ASM disk group. In this case, set DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE to no more than half the size of the disks for the ASM disk group. Likewise, when using a three-way mirrored ASM disk group, DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE must be no more than one third the size of the disks in the disk group, and so on.
DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST
Yes
Specifies the recovery area location, which can be a file system directory or ASM disk group, but not raw disk. The location must be large enough for the disk quota.
DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET
No
Specifies the upper limit (in minutes) on how far back in time the database may be flashed back. This parameter is required only for Flashback Database.
This parameter indirectly determines how much flashback log data is kept in the recovery area. The size of flashback logs generated by the database can vary considerably depending on the database workload. If more blocks are affected by database updates during a given interval, then more disk space is used by the flashback log data generated for that interval.
See Also:
Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for ALTER SYSTEM syntax, and Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for details on setting and changing database initialization parameters
Considerations When Setting the Size of the Fast Recovery Area
The larger the fast recovery area is, the more useful it becomes. Ideally, the fast recovery area should be large enough to contain the files listed in Table 5-2. The recovery area should be able to contain a copy of all datafiles in the database and the incremental backups used by your chosen backup strategy.
If providing this much space is impractical, then it is best to create an area large enough to keep a backup of the most important tablespaces and all the archived logs not yet on tape. At an absolute minimum, the fast recovery area must be large enough to contain the archived redo logs not yet on tape. If the recovery area has insufficient space to store flashback logs and meet other backup retention requirements, then the recovery area may delete flashback logs to make room.
Formulas for estimating a useful fast recovery area size depend on whether:
• Your database has a small or large number of data blocks that change frequently
• You store backups only on disk, or on disk and tape
• You use a redundancy-based backup retention policy, or a recovery window-based retention policy
• You plan to use Flashback Database or a guaranteed restore point as alternatives to point-in-time recovery in response to logical errors
If you plan to enable flashback logging, then the volume of flashback log generation is approximately the same order of magnitude as redo log generation. For example, if you intend to set DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET to 24 hours, and if the database generates 20 GB of redo in a day, then a rule of thumb is to allow 20 GB to 30 GB disk space for the flashback logs. The same rule applies to guaranteed restore points when flashback logging is enabled. For example, if the database generates 20 GB redo every day, and if the guaranteed restore point is kept for a day, then plan to allocate 20 to 30 GB.
Suppose that you want to determine the size of a flash recovery when the backup retention policy is set to REDUNDANCY 1 and you intend to follow the Oracle Suggested Strategy of using an incrementally updated backup. In this example, you use the following formula to estimate the disk quota, where n is the interval in days between incremental updates and y is the delay in applying the foreign archived redo logs on a logical standby database:
Disk Quota =
Size of a copy of database +
Size of an incremental backup +
Size of (n+1) days of archived redo logs +
Size of (y+1) days of foreign archived redo logs (for logical standby) +
Size of control file +
Size of an online redo log member * number of log groups +
Size of flashback logs (based on DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET value)
Considerations When Setting the Location of the Fast Recovery Area
Place the fast recovery area on a separate disk from the database area, where the database maintains active database files such as datafiles, control files, and online redo logs. Keeping the fast recovery area on the same disk as the database area exposes you to loss of both your live database files and backups if a media failure occurs.
Oracle recommends that DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST be set to a different value from DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST or any of the DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_n initialization parameters. The database writes a warning to the alert log if DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST is the same as these parameters.
Multiple databases can have the same value for DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST, but one of the following must be true:
• No two databases for which the DB_UNIQUE_NAME initialization parameters are specified have the same value for DB_UNIQUE_NAME.
• For those databases where no DB_UNIQUE_NAME is provided, no two databases have the same value for DB_NAME.
When databases share a single recovery area in this way, the location should be large enough to hold the files for all databases. Add the values for DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE for the databases, then allow for overhead such as mirroring or compression.
Setting the Fast Recovery Area Location and Initial Size
Table 5-3 lists the initialization parameters that you must set to enable the fast recovery area. This section explains how to specify a location for the recovery area and set its initial size.
To determine the optimum size for the fast recovery area:
1. If you plan to use flashback logging or guaranteed restore points, then query V$ARCHIVED_LOG to determine how much redo the database generates in the time to which you intend to set DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET.
2. Set the recovery area size.
If you plan to use flashback logging or guaranteed restore points, then ensure that the size value obtained from step 1 is incorporated into the setting. Set the DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE initialization parameter by any of the following means:
• Shut down the database and set the DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE parameter in the initialization parameter file of the database, as shown in the following example:
DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE = 10G
• Specify them with the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM SET when the database is open, as shown in the following examples:
ALTER SYSTEM SET
DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST_SIZE = 10G
SCOPE=BOTH SID='*';
• Use the Database Configuration Assistant to set the size
3. Set the recovery area location.
Set the initialization parameters by any of the following means:
• Set DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST in the initialization parameter file of the database, as shown in the following example:
DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST = '/u01/oradata/rcv_area'
• Specify DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST with the SQL statement ALTER SYSTEM SET when the database is open, as shown in the following example:
ALTER SYSTEM SET
DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST = '+disk1'
SCOPE=BOTH SID='*';
• Use the Database Configuration Assistant to set the location
If you do not plan to use flashback logging, then open the database (if it is closed) and do not complete the rest of the steps in this procedure.
4. If flashback logging is enabled, then run the database under a normal workload for the time period specified by DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET.
In this way, the database can generate a representative sample of flashback logs.
5. Query the V$FLASHBACK_DATABASE_LOG view as follows:
SELECT ESTIMATED_FLASHBACK_SIZE
FROM V$FLASHBACK_DATABASE_LOG;
The result is an estimate of the disk space needed to meet the current flashback retention target, based on the database workload since Flashback Database was enabled.
6. If necessary, adjust the flashback log space requirement based on the actual size of flashback logs generated during the time period specified by DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET.
Disabling the Fast Recovery Area
If you have enabled Flashback Database or use the fast recovery area for archive logs, then follow the appropriate steps below. Otherwise, skip to step 3:
1. If Flashback Database is enabled, then disable it before you disable the fast recovery area.
ALTER DATABASE FLASHBACK OFF;
2. If you are using fast recovery area for archive logs, then set the initialization parameter LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n to use a non-fast recovery area location.
For example, to change the fast recovery area for LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_1 to a non-fast recovery area location, use the command ALTER SYSTEM SET:
LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_1='LOCATION=USE_DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST'
ALTER SYSTEM SET LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_1='LOCATION=/ORACLE/DBS/';
3. Disable the fast recovery area initialization parameter.
ALTER SYSTEM SET DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST='';
Configuring Locations for Control Files and Redo Logs
As explained in "Overview of the Fast Recovery Area", the only permanent files are multiplexed copies of the current control file and online redo logs. This section explains how to set locations for these files as well as the archived logs.
Configuring Online Redo Log Locations
The initialization parameters that determine where online redo log files are created are DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_n, DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST, and DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST. Details of the effect of combinations of these parameters on online redo log creation can be found in Oracle Database SQL Language Reference in the description of the LOGFILE clause of the CREATE DATABASE statement.
The following SQL statements can create online redo logs in the fast recovery area:
The default size of an online log created in the fast recovery area is 100 MB. The log member filenames are automatically generated by the database.
Configuring Control File Locations
The initialization parameters CONTROL_FILES, DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_n, DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST, and DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST all interact to determine the location where the database control files are created. For a full description of how these parameters interact, see the "Semantics" section of the description of CREATE CONTROLFILE in Oracle Database SQL Language Reference.
If the database creates an Oracle managed control file, and if the database uses a server parameter file, then the database sets the CONTROL_FILES initialization parameter in the server parameter file. If the database uses a client-side initialization parameter file, then you must set the CONTROL_FILES initialization parameter manually in the initialization parameter file.
Configuring Archived Redo Log Locations
It is recommended that you the use fast recovery area as an archiving location because the archived logs are automatically managed by the database. The generated filenames for the archived logs in the fast recovery area are for Oracle Managed files and are not determined by LOG_ARCHIVE_FORMAT. Whatever archiving scheme you choose, it is always advisable to create multiple copies of archived redo logs.
You have the following basic options for archiving redo logs, listed from most to least recommended:
1. Enable archiving to the fast recovery area only and use disk mirroring to create the redundancy needed to protect the archived redo logs.
If DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST is specified and no LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n is specified, then LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_10 is implicitly set to the recovery area. You can override this behavior by setting LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_10 to an empty string.
2. Enable archiving to the fast recovery area and set other LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n initialization parameter to locations outside the fast recovery area.
If a fast recovery area is configured, then you can add the fast recovery area as an archiving destination by setting any LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameter to LOCATION=USE_DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST.
3. Set LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n initialization parameters to archive only to non-fast recovery area locations.
If you use the fast recovery area, then you cannot use the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST and LOG_ARCHIVE_DUPLEX_DEST initialization parameters. Using either of these parameters prevents you from starting the instance. Instead, set the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameters. After your database is using LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n, you can configure a recovery area.
Note also that if you enable archiving but do not set any value for LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST, LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n, or DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST, then the redo logs are archived to a default location that is platform-specific. For example, on Solaris the default is ?/dbs.
See Also:
Oracle Database Reference for details on the semantics of the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameters
Configuring RMAN File Creation in the Fast Recovery Area
This section describes RMAN commands or implicit actions (such as control file autobackups) that can create files in the fast recovery area, and how to control whether a command creates files there or in another destination. The commands are:
• BACKUP
If you do not specify the FORMAT clause for disk backups, then RMAN creates backup pieces and image copies in the fast recovery area, with names in Oracle Managed Files name format. If a fast recovery area is enabled, and if you do specify FORMAT on BACKUP or a channel, then RMAN creates the backup in a platform-specific location rather than in the recovery area.
• Control File Autobackup
RMAN can create control file autobackups in the fast recovery area. Use the RMAN command CONFIGURE CONTROLFILE AUTOBACKUP FORMAT FOR DEVICE TYPE DISK CLEAR to clear any configured format option for the control file autobackup location on disk. RMAN creates control file autobackups in in the fast recovery area when no other destination is configured.
• RESTORE ARCHIVELOG
Explicitly or implicitly set one of the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameters to LOCATION=USE_DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST. If you do not specify SET ARCHIVELOG DESTINATION to override this behavior, then RMAN restores archived redo log files to the fast recovery area.
• RECOVER DATABASE or RECOVER TABLESPACE, RECOVER ... BLOCK, and FLASHBACK DATABASE
These commands restore archived redo log files from backup for use during media recovery, as required by the command. RMAN restores any redo log files needed during these operations to the fast recovery area and deletes them after they are applied during media recovery.
To direct the restored archived logs to the fast recovery area, set one of the LOG_ARCHIVE_DEST_n parameters to LOCATION = USE_DB_RECOVERY_FILE_DEST. Make sure you are not using SET ARCHIVELOG DESTINATION to direct restored logs to some other destination.
Configuring the Backup Retention Policy
As explained in "Backup Retention Policies", the backup retention policy specifies which backups must be retained to meet your data recovery requirements. This policy can be based on a recovery window or redundancy. Use the CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY command to specify the retention policy.
See Also:
Oracle Database Backup and Recovery Reference for CONFIGURE syntax
Configuring a Redundancy-Based Retention Policy
The REDUNDANCY parameter of the CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY command specifies how many full or level 0 backups of each datafile and control file that RMAN should keep. If the number of full or level 0 backups for a specific datafile or control file exceeds the REDUNDANCY setting, then RMAN considers the extra backups as obsolete. The default retention policy is REDUNDANCY 1.
As you produce more backups, RMAN keeps track of which ones to retain and which are obsolete. RMAN retains all archived logs and incremental backups that are needed to recover the nonobsolete backups.
Assume that you make a full backup of datafile 7 on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. You now have four full backups of this datafile. If REDUNDANCY is 2, then the Monday and Tuesday backups are obsolete. If you make another backup on Friday, then the Wednesday backup of datafile 7 becomes obsolete.
Assume a different case in which REDUNDANCY is 1. You run a level 0 database backup at noon Monday, a level 1 cumulative backup at noon on Tuesday and Wednesday, and a level 0 backup at noon on Thursday. Immediately after each daily backup you run a DELETE OBSOLETE. The Wednesday DELETE command does not remove the Tuesday level 1 backup because this backup is not redundant: the Tuesday level 1 backup could be used to recover the Monday level 0 backup to a time between noon on Tuesday and noon on Wednesday. However, the DELETE command on Thursday removes the previous level 0 and level 1 backups.
Run the CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY command at the RMAN prompt, as in the following example:
CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY TO REDUNDANCY 3;
Configuring a Recovery Window-Based Retention Policy
The RECOVERY WINDOW parameter of the CONFIGURE command specifies the number of days between the current time and the earliest point of recoverability. RMAN does not consider any full or level 0 incremental backup as obsolete if it falls within the recovery window. Additionally, RMAN retains all archived logs and level 1 incremental backups that are needed to recover to a random point within the window.
Run the CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY command at the RMAN prompt. This example ensures that you can recover the database to any point within the last week:
CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY TO RECOVERY WINDOW OF 7 DAYS;
RMAN does not automatically delete backups rendered obsolete by the recovery window. Instead, RMAN shows them as OBSOLETE in the REPORT OBSOLETE output and in the OBSOLETE column of V$BACKUP_FILES. RMAN deletes obsolete files if you run the DELETE OBSOLETE command.
Disabling the Retention Policy
When you disable the retention policy, RMAN does not consider any backup as obsolete. To disable the retention policy, run this command:
CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY TO NONE;
Configuring the retention policy to NONE is not the same as clearing it. Clearing it returns it to its default setting of REDUNDANCY 1, whereas NONE disables it.
If you disable the retention policy and run REPORT OBSOLETE or DELETE OBSOLETE without passing a retention policy option to the command, then RMAN issues an error because no retention policy exists to determine which backups are obsolete.
Note:
If you are using a fast recovery area, then you should not run your database with the retention policy disabled. If files are never considered obsolete, then a file can only be deleted from the fast recovery area if it has been backed up to some other disk location or to a tertiary storage device such as tape. This action is likely to use all of the space in your recovery area, which interferes with the normal operation of your database. See "How Oracle Manages Disk Space in the Fast Recovery Area".
Configuring Backup Optimization
Run the CONFIGURE command to enable and disable backup optimization. Backup optimization skips the backup of files in certain circumstances if the identical file or an identical version of the file has already been backed up.
Overview of Backup Optimization
If you enable backup optimization, then the BACKUP command skips backing up files when the identical file has already been backed up to the specified device type. Table 5-4 describes criteria that RMAN uses to determine whether a file is identical to a file that it already backed up.
Table 5-4 Criteria to Determine an Identical File
Type of File Criteria to Determine an Identical File
Datafile
The datafile must have the same DBID, checkpoint SCN, creation SCN, and RESETLOGS SCN and time as a datafile already in a backup. The datafile must be offline-normal, read-only, or closed normally.
Archived log
Same DBID, thread, sequence number, and RESETLOGS SCN and time.
Backup set
Same DBID, backup set record ID and stamp.
If RMAN determines that a file is identical and it has already been backed up, then it is a candidate to be skipped. RMAN must do further checking to determine whether to skip the file, however, because both the retention policy and the backup duplexing feature are factors in the algorithm that determines whether RMAN has sufficient backups on the specified device type.
RMAN uses backup optimization when the following conditions are true:
• The CONFIGURE BACKUP OPTIMIZATION ON command has been run to enable backup optimization.
• You run BACKUP DATABASE, BACKUP ARCHIVELOG with ALL or LIKE options, or BACKUP BACKUPSET ALL, BACKUP RECOVERY AREA, BACKUP RECOVERY FILES, or BACKUP DATAFILECOPY.
Note:
When TO DESTINATION is used in conjunction with BACKUP RECOVERY AREA or BACKUP RECOVERY FILES, RMAN only skips backups of files that have identical backups in the TO DESTINATION location you provide.
• Only one type of channel is allocated - do not mix disk and SBT channels in the same backup command.
Note:
In backup undo optimization, RMAN excludes undo (that is not needed for recovery of a backup) for transactions that have already been committed. You can enable and disable backup optimization, but backup undo optimization is built-in behavior.
For example, assume that you have configured backup optimization. These commands back up to tape the database, all archived logs, and all backup sets:
BACKUP DEVICE TYPE sbt DATABASE PLUS ARCHIVELOG;
BACKUP DEVICE TYPE sbt BACKUPSET ALL;
If none of the backed-up files has changed since the last backup, then RMAN does not back up the files again. RMAN also does not signal an error if it skips all files specified in the command because the files have already been backed up.
You can override optimization at any time by specifying the FORCE option on the BACKUP command. For example, you can run:
BACKUP DATABASE FORCE;
BACKUP ARCHIVELOG ALL FORCE;
See Also:
The CONFIGURE entry in Oracle Database Backup and Recovery Reference for a complete description of the backup optimization rules
Effect of Retention Policies on Backup Optimization for SBT Backups
Backup optimization is not always applied when backing up to SBT devices. The exceptions to normal backup optimization behavior for recovery window-based and redundancy-based retention policies are described in the following sections.
Note:
Use caution when enabling backup optimization if you use a media manager with its own internal expiration policy. Run the CROSSCHECK command periodically to synchronize the RMAN repository with the media manager. Otherwise, RMAN may skip backups due to optimization without recognizing that the media manager has discarded backups stored on tape.
Backup Optimization for SBT Backups with Recovery Window Retention Policy
Suppose that backup optimization is enabled, and a recovery window backup retention policy is in effect. In this case, when performing SBT backups RMAN always backs up datafiles whose most recent backup is older than the recovery window. For example, assume the following scenario:
• Today is February 21.
• The recovery window is 7 days.
• The most recent backup of tablespace tools to tape is January 3.
• Tablespace tools is read-only.
On February 21, when you issue a command to back up tablespace tools to tape, RMAN backs it up even though it did not change after the January 3 backup (because it is read-only). RMAN makes the backup because no backup of the tablespace exists within the 7-day recovery window.
This behavior enables the media manager to expire old tapes. Otherwise, the media manager would be forced to keep the January 3 backup of tablespace tools indefinitely. By making a more recent backup of tablespace tools on February 21, RMAN enables the media manager to expire the tape containing the January 3 backup.
Backup Optimization for SBT Backups With Redundancy Retention Policy
Assume that you configure a retention policy for redundancy. In this case, RMAN only skips backups of offline or read-only datafiles to SBT when there are r + 1 backups of the files, where r is set in CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY TO REDUNDANCY r.
For example, assume that you enable backup optimization and set the following retention policy:
CONFIGURE DEFAULT DEVICE TYPE TO sbt;
CONFIGURE BACKUP OPTIMIZATION ON;
CONFIGURE RETENTION POLICY TO REDUNDANCY 2;
With these settings, RMAN only skips backups when three identical files are already backed up. Also assume that you have never backed up the users tablespace, which is read/write, and that you perform the actions described in Table 5-5 over the course of the week.
Table 5-5 Effect of Redundancy Setting on Backup Optimization
Day Action Result Redundant Backup
Monday
Take users offline normal.
Tuesday
BACKUP DATABASE
The users tablespace is backed up.
Wednesday
BACKUP DATABASE
The users tablespace is backed up.
Thursday
BACKUP DATABASE
The users tablespace is backed up.
Tuesday backup
Friday
BACKUP DATABASE
The users tablespace is not backed up.
Tuesday backup
Saturday
BACKUP DATABASE
The users tablespace is not backed up.
Tuesday backup
Sunday
DELETE OBSOLETE
The Tuesday backup is deleted.
Monday
BACKUP DATABASE
The users tablespace is backed up.
Wednesday backup
The backups on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday back up the offline users tablespace to satisfy the condition that three backups must exist (one more than redundancy setting). The Friday and Saturday backups do not back up the users tablespace because of backup optimization. The Tuesday backup of users is obsolete beginning on Thursday.
On Sunday, you delete all obsolete backups, which removes the Tuesday backup of users. The Tuesday backup is obsolete because of the retention policy setting. The whole database backup on Monday then backs up the users tablespace to satisfy the condition that three backups must exist (one more than redundancy setting). In this way, you can recycle your tapes over time.
Configuring Backup Optimization
By default, backup optimization is configured to OFF. You can use the SHOW BACKUP OPTIMIZATION command to view the current settings of backup optimization.
To configure backup optimization:
1. Start RMAN and connect to a target database and a recovery catalog (if used).
2. Run the SHOW BACKUP OPTIMIZATION command to determine whether optimization is currently enabled.
For example, enter the following command:
SHOW BACKUP OPTIMIZATION;
Sample output for SHOW BACKUP OPTIMIZATION follows:
RMAN configuration parameters for database with db_unique_name PROD1 are:
CONFIGURE BACKUP OPTIMIZATION ON;
3. Enable backup optimization by running the following command:
CONFIGURE BACKUP OPTIMIZATION ON;
See Also:
"Using Backup Optimization to Skip Files" for examples of how to optimize RMAN backups
Configuring an Archived Redo Log Deletion Policy
You can use RMAN to create a persistent configuration that governs when archived redo logs are eligible for deletion from disk.
About Archived Redo Log Deletion Policies
You can use the CONFIGURE ARCHIVELOG DELETION POLICY command to specify when archived redo logs are eligible for deletion. This deletion policy applies to all archiving destinations, including the fast recovery area.
Archived redo logs can be deleted automatically by the database or as a result of user-initiated RMAN commands. Only logs in the fast recovery area can be deleted automatically by the database. For archived redo log files in the fast recovery area, the database retains them as long as possible and automatically deletes eligible logs when additional disk space is required. You can manually delete eligible logs from any location, whether inside or outside the fast recovery area, when you issue BACKUP ... DELETE INPUT or DELETE ARCHIVELOG.
When the Archived Redo Log Deletion Policy Is Disabled
By default, there is no archived redo log deletion policy and this is why the archive redo log policy is set to the NONE clause. In this particular case, the fast recovery area considers archived redo log files in the recovery area as eligible for deletion if they have been backed up at least once to disk or SBT or the logs are obsolete according to the backup retention policy. The backup retention policy considers logs obsolete only if the logs are not needed by a guaranteed restore point and the logs are not needed by Oracle Flashback Database. Archived redo logs are needed by Flashback Database if the logs were created later than SYSDATE-'DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET'.
See Also:
When the Archived Redo Log Deletion Policy Is Enabled
You can use the CONFIGURE ARCHIVELOG DELETION POLICY BACKED UP integer TIMES TO DEVICE TYPE command to enable an archived log deletion policy. This configuration specifies that archived logs are eligible for deletion only when the specified number of archived log backups exist on the specified device type.
If the deletion policy is configured with the BACKED UP integer TIMES clause, then a BACKUP ARCHIVELOG command copies the logs unless integer backups already exist on the specified device type. If integer backups of the logs exist, then the BACKUP ARCHIVELOG command skips the logs. In this way, the archived log deletion policy functions as a default NOT BACKED UP integer TIMES clause on the BACKUP ARCHIVELOG command. You can override the deletion policy by specifying the FORCE option on the BACKUP command.
The archived log deletion policy also has options specific to a Data Guard environment. For example, if you specify the APPLIED ON STANDBY clause, then RMAN can delete logs after they have been applied at all mandatory remote destinations. If you specify SHIPPED TO STANDBY, for example, then RMAN can delete logs when they have been transferred to all mandatory standby destinations.
See Also:
Enabling an Archived Redo Log Deletion Policy
This section explains how to configure an archived redo log deletion policy. By default the policy is set to NONE.
To enable an archived redo log deletion policy:
1. Start RMAN and connect to a target database and a recovery catalog (if used).
2. Run the CONFIGURE ARCHIVELOG DELETION POLICY command with the desired options.
The following example specifies that archived redo logs are eligible to be deleted from the fast recovery area and all local archiving destinations when logs have been backed up at least twice tape:
CONFIGURE ARCHIVELOG DELETION POLICY
TO BACKED UP 2 TIMES TO SBT;
See Also:
Configuring Oracle Flashback Database and Restore Points
This section describes how to plan and configure the environment for Oracle Flashback Database. This section also explains how to create restore points. This section contains the following topics:
About Restore Points and Flashback Database
Oracle Flashback Database and restore points are related data protection features. These features provide more efficient alternatives to point-in-time recovery for reversing unwanted database changes. Flashback Database enables you to rewind an entire database backward in time, reversing the effects of database changes within a time window. The effects are similar to database point-in-time recovery (DBPITR).
Restore points provide capabilities related to Flashback Database and other media recovery operations. In particular, a guaranteed restore point created at an SCN ensures that you can use Flashback Database to rewind the database to this SCN. You can use restore points and Flashback Database independently or together.
Flashback Database
Oracle Flashback Database is accessible through the RMAN command FLASHBACK DATABASE or through the SQL statement FLASHBACK DATABASE. You can use either command to quickly recover the database from logical data corruptions or user errors.
Flashback Database is similar to conventional point-in-time recovery in its effects, enabling you to return a database to its state at a time in the recent past. Flashback Database is much faster than point-in-time recovery, however, because it does not require restoring datafiles from backup and requires applying fewer changes from the archived redo logs.
You can use Flashback Database to reverse most unwanted changes to a database as long as the datafiles are intact. You can return a database to its state in a previous incarnation, and undo the effects of an ALTER DATABASE OPEN RESETLOGS statement. "Rewinding a Database with Flashback Database" explains how to use the FLASHBACK DATABASE command to reverse database changes.
Flashback Database uses its own logging mechanism, creating flashback logs and storing them in the fast recovery area. You can only use Flashback Database if flashback logs are available. Thus, to take advantage of this feature you must set up your database in advance to create flashback logs.
To enable Flashback Database, you configure a fast recovery area and set a flashback retention target. This retention target specifies how far back you can rewind a database with Flashback Database. From the target time onwards, the database regularly copies images of every changed block in the datafiles to the flashback logs.
When you use Flashback Database to rewind a database to a past target time, the command determines which blocks changed after the target time and restores them from the flashback logs. The database restores the version of each block that is most immediately prior to the target time. The database then uses redo logs to reapply changes that were made after these blocks were written to the flashback logs.
Redo logs on disk or tape must be available for the entire time period spanned by the flashback logs. For example, if the flashback retention target is one week, then you must ensure that online and archived redo logs that contain all changes for the past week are accessible. In practice, redo logs are typically needed much longer than the flashback retention target to support point-in-time recovery.
About the Flashback Database Window
The range of SCNs for which there is currently enough flashback log data to support the FLASHBACK DATABASE command is called the flashback database window. The flashback database window cannot extend further back than the earliest SCN in the available flashback logs.
Note:
Some database operations, such as dropping a tablespace or shrinking a datafile, cannot be reversed with Flashback Database. In these cases the flashback database window begins at the time immediately following that operation.
You cannot back up flashback logs to locations outside the fast recovery area. To increase the likelihood that enough flashback logs are retained to meet the flashback database window, you can increase the space in your fast recovery area (see "Setting the Fast Recovery Area Location and Initial Size").
If the fast recovery area is not large enough to hold the flashback logs and files such as archived redo logs and other backups needed for the retention policy, then the database may delete flashback logs from the earliest SCNs to make room for other files. Consequently, the flashback database window can be shorter than the flashback retention target, depending on the size of the fast recovery area, other backups that must be retained, and how much flashback logging data is needed. The flashback retention target is a target, not a guarantee that Flashback Database is available.
If you cannot use FLASHBACK DATABASE because the flashback database window is not long enough, then you can use database point-in-time recovery (DBPITR) in most cases to achieve a similar result. Guaranteed restore points are the only way to ensure that you can use Flashback Database to return to a specific point in time or guarantee the size of the flashback window.
See Also:
Limitations of Flashback Database
Because Flashback Database works by undoing changes to the datafiles that exist at the moment that you run the command, it has the following limitations:
• Flashback Database can only undo changes to a datafile made by an Oracle database. It cannot be used to repair media failures, or to recover from accidental deletion of datafiles.
• You cannot use Flashback Database to undo a shrink datafile operation. However, you can take the shrink file offline, flashback the rest of the database, and then later restore and recover the shrink datafile
• You can not use Flashback Database alone to get back a dropped datafile. If you flashback a database to a time when a dropped datafile existed in the database, Oracle will only add the datafile entry in the controlfile. You can recover the dropped datafile by further restoring and recovering the datafile.
• If the database control file is restored from backup or re-created, all accumulated flashback log information is discarded. You cannot use FLASHBACK DATABASE to return to a point in time before the restore or re-creation of a control file
• When using Flashback Database with a target time at which a NOLOGGING operation was in progress, block corruption is likely in the database objects and datafiles affected by the NOLOGGING operation. For example, if you perform a direct-path INSERT operation in NOLOGGING mode, and that operation runs from 9:00 to 9:15 on April 3, 2005, and you later need to use Flashback Database to return to the target time 09:07 on that date, the objects and datafiles updated by the direct-path INSERT may be left with block corruption after the Flashback Database operation completes.
If possible, avoid using Flashback Database with a target time or SCN that coincides with a NOLOGGING operation. Also, perform a full or incremental backup of the affected datafiles immediately after any NOLOGGING operation to ensure recoverability to points in time after the operation. If you expect to use Flashback Database to return to a point in time during an operation such as a direct-path INSERT, consider performing the operation in LOGGING mode.
See the discussion of logging_clause in Oracle Database SQL Reference for more information about operations that support NOLOGGING mode.
Normal Restore Points
A normal restore point assigns a restore point name to an SCN or specific point in time. Thus, a restore point functions as a bookmark or alias for this SCN. Before performing any operation that you may have to reverse, you can create a normal restore point. The control file stores the name of the restore point and the SCN.
If you need to use flashback features or point-in-time recovery, then you can use the name of the restore point instead of a time or SCN. The following commands support this use of restore points:
A normal restore point eliminates the need to manually record an SCN in advance or determine the correct SCN after the fact by using features such as Flashback Query.
Normal restore points are lightweight. The control file can maintain a record of thousands of normal restore points with no significant impact on database performance. Normal restore points eventually age out of the control file if not manually deleted, so they require no ongoing maintenance.
See Also:
Oracle Database Advanced Application Developer's Guide to learn how to use Flashback Query
Guaranteed Restore Points
Like a normal restore point, a guaranteed restore point serves as an alias for an SCN in recovery operations. A principal difference is that guaranteed restore points never age out of the control file and must be explicitly dropped. In general, you can use a guaranteed restore point as an alias for an SCN with any command that works with a normal restore point. Except as noted, the information about where and how to use normal restore points applies to guaranteed restore points as well.
A guaranteed restore point ensures that you can use Flashback Database to rewind a database to its state at the restore point SCN, even if the generation of flashback logs is disabled. If flashback logging is enabled, then a guaranteed restore point enforces the retention of flashback logs required for Flashback Database to any SCN after the earliest guaranteed restore point. Thus, if flashback logging is enabled, you can rewind the database to any SCN in the continuum rather than to a single SCN only.
Caution:
If flashback logging is disabled, then you cannot use FLASHBACK DATABASE to rewind the database to SCNs between the guaranteed restore points and the current time. In this case, your only option to return the database to an intermediate SCN is DBPITR.
If the recovery area has enough disk space to store the needed logs, then you can use a guaranteed restore point to rewind a whole database to a known good state days or weeks ago. As with Flashback Database, even the effects of NOLOGGING operations like direct load inserts can be reversed with guaranteed restore points.
Note:
Limitations that apply to Flashback Database also apply to guaranteed restore points. For example, shrinking a datafile or dropping a tablespace can prevent flashing back the affected datafiles to the guaranteed restore point. See the FLASHBACK DATABASE entry in Oracle Database Backup and Recovery Reference for a complete list of command prerequisites and usage notes.
Guaranteed Restore Points and Storage Snapshots
In practice, guaranteed restore points provide a useful alternative to storage snapshots. Storage snapshots are often used to protect a database before risky operations such as large-scale database updates or application patches or upgrades. Rather than creating a snapshot or duplicate database to test the operation, you can create a guaranteed restore point on a primary or physical standby database. You can then perform the risky operation with the certainty that the required flashback logs are retained.
Logging for Flashback Database and Guaranteed Restore Points
Logging for Flashback Database and guaranteed restore points involves capturing images of datafile blocks before changes are applied. The FLASHBACK DATABASE command can use these images to return the datafiles to their previous state.
The chief differences between normal flashback logging and logging for guaranteed restore points are related to when blocks are logged and whether the logs can be deleted in response to space pressure in the fast recovery area. These differences affect space usage for logs and database performance.
Your recoverability goals partially determine whether to enable logging for flashback database, use guaranteed restore points, or both. The implications in performance and in space usage for these features, separately and when used together, should also factor into your decision.
Guaranteed Restore Points and Fast Recovery Area Space Usage
The following rules govern creation, retention, overwriting and deletion of flashback logs in the fast recovery area:
• If the fast recovery area has enough space, then a flashback log is created whenever necessary to satisfy the flashback retention target.
• If a flashback log is old enough that it is no longer needed to satisfy the flashback retention target, then a flashback log is reused.
• If the database must create a new flashback log and the fast recovery area is full or there is no disk space, then the oldest flashback log is reused instead.
Note:
Reusing the oldest flashback log shortens the flashback database window. If enough flashback logs are reused due to a lack of disk space, then the flashback retention target may not be satisfied.
• If the fast recovery area is full, then an archived redo log that is reclaimable according to the FRA rules may be automatically deleted by the fast recovery area to make space for other files. In this case, any flashback logs that would require the use of that redo log file for the use of FLASHBACK DATABASE are also deleted.
• Note:
According to FRA rules, a file is reclaimable when one of the following criteria is true:
• The file is reported as obsolete and not needed by the flashback database. For example, the file is outside the DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET parameters. The file is backed up to tape.
• No file in the fast recovery area is eligible for deletion if it is required to satisfy a guaranteed restore point. Thus, retention of flashback logs and other files required to satisfy the guaranteed restore point, in addition to files required to satisfy the backup retention policy, can cause the fast recovery area to fill completely. Consult "Responding to a Full Fast Recovery Area" if your fast recovery area becomes full.
When you create a guaranteed restore point, with or without enabling full flashback database logging, you must monitor the space available in your fast recovery area. "Managing Space For Flashback Logs in the Fast Recovery Area" explains how to monitor fast recovery area disk space usage.
Caution:
If no files are eligible for deletion from the fast recovery area because of the requirements imposed by your retention policy and the guaranteed restore point, then the database behaves as if it has encountered a disk full condition. In many circumstances, this causes your database to halt. See "Responding to a Full Fast Recovery Area".
Logging for Guaranteed Restore Points With Flashback Logging Disabled
Assume that you create a guaranteed restore point when logging for Flashback Database is disabled. In this case, the first time a datafile block is modified after the time of the guaranteed restore point, the database stores an image of the block before the modification in the flashback logs. Thus, the flashback logs preserve the contents of every changed data block at the time that the guaranteed restore point was created. Later modifications to the same block do not cause the contents to be logged again unless another guaranteed restore point was created after the block was last modified.
This method of logging has the following important consequences:
• FLASHBACK DATABASE can re-create the datafile contents at the time of a guaranteed restore point by means of the block images.
• For workloads that repeatedly modify the same data, disk space usage can be less than normal flashback logging. Less space is needed because each changed block is only logged once. Applications with low volume inserts may benefit from this disk space saving while this advantage is less likely for applications with high volume inserts or large batch inserts. The performance overhead of logging for a guaranteed restore point without flashback database logging enabled can also be lower.
Assume that your primary goal is the ability to return your database to the time at which the guaranteed restore point was created. In this case, it is usually more efficient to turn off flashback logging and use only guaranteed restore points. For example, suppose that you are performing an application upgrade on a database host over a weekend. You could create a guaranteed restore point at the start of the upgrade. If the upgrade fails, then reverse the changes with FLASHBACK DATABASE.
Logging for Flashback Database With Guaranteed Restore Points Defined
If you enable Flashback Database and define one or more guaranteed restore points, then the database performs normal flashback logging. In this case, the recovery area retains the flashback logs required to flash back to any arbitrary time between the present and the earliest currently defined guaranteed restore point. Flashback logs are not deleted in response to space pressure if they are required to satisfy the guarantee.
Flashback logging causes some performance overhead. Depending upon the pattern of activity on your database, it can also cause significant space pressure in the fast recovery area. Thus, you should monitor space used in the fast recovery area.
Prerequisites for Flashback Database and Guaranteed Restore Points
The prerequisites for enabling Flashback Database are the following:
• Your database must be running in ARCHIVELOG mode, because archived logs are used in the Flashback Database operation.
• You must have a fast recovery area enabled, because flashback logs can only be stored in the fast recovery area.
• For Real Application Clusters databases, the fast recovery area must be stored in a clustered file system or in ASM.
To support the use of guaranteed restore points, the database must satisfy the following prerequisites:
• The COMPATIBLE initialization parameter must be set to 10.2 or greater.
• The database must be running in ARCHIVELOG mode.
To rewind your database to a guaranteed restore point, the FLASHBACK DATABASE command requires the use of archived redo logs starting from around the time of the restore point.
• A fast recovery area must be configured, as described in "Configuring the Fast Recovery Area".
Guaranteed restore points use a mechanism similar to flashback logging. As with flashback logging, Oracle Database must store the required logs in the fast recovery area.
• If Flashback Database is not enabled, then the database must be mounted or open when creating the first guaranteed restore point (or if all previously created guaranteed restore points have been dropped) from an instance. Other instances in a RAC set up can be in any state.
Note:
No special requirements exist for using normal restore points.
Enabling Flashback Database
To enable logging for Flashback Database:
To enable flashback logging:
1. Ensure a database instance is open or mounted. If the instance is mounted, then the database must be shut down cleanly unless it is a physical standby database. Other RAC instances can be in any mode.
2. Optionally, set the DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET to the length of the desired flashback window in minutes:
ALTER SYSTEM SET DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET=4320; # 3 days
By default DB_FLASHBACK_RETENTION_TARGET is set to one day (1440 minutes).
3. Enable the Flashback Database feature for the whole database:
ALTER DATABASE FLASHBACK ON;
4. Optionally, disable flashback logging for specific tablespaces.
By default, flashback logs are generated for all permanent tablespaces. If you want, you can reduce overhead by disabling flashback logging for specific tablespaces as in the following example:
ALTER TABLESPACE tbs_3 FLASHBACK OFF;
You can re-enable flashback logging for a tablespace later with this command:
ALTER TABLESPACE tbs_3 FLASHBACK ON;
If you disable Flashback Database for a tablespace, then you must take its datafiles offline before running FLASHBACK DATABASE.
When enabling Flashback Database while the database is open, there is a very small chance the command may not be able to obtain the memory it needs. If the command fails because of that reason, retry the command after a while or retry after a shutdown and restart of the instance.
When you enable Flashback Database on a physical standby database, you can flash back a standby database. Flashback Database of standby databases has a number of applications in the Data Guard environment. See Oracle Data Guard Concepts and Administration for details.
Disabling Flashback Database
To disable flashback logging:
On one of the database instances that is either in mount or open state, issue the following command:
ALTER DATABASE FLASHBACK OFF;
Creating Normal and Guaranteed Restore Points
To create normal or guaranteed restore points, use the CREATE RESTORE POINT SQL statement, providing a name for the restore point and specifying whether it is to be a guaranteed restore point or a normal one (the default).
To create a restore point:
1. Connect SQL*Plus to a target database.
2. Ensure that the database is open or mounted. If the database is mounted, then it must have been shut down cleanly (unless it is a physical standby database).
3. Run the CREATE RESTORE POINT statement.
The following example shows how to create a normal restore point in SQL*Plus:
SQL> CREATE RESTORE POINT before_upgrade;
This example shows how to create a guaranteed restore point:
SQL> CREATE RESTORE POINT before_upgrade GUARANTEE FLASHBACK DATABASE;
See Also:
Configuring the Environment for Optimal Flashback Database Performance
Maintaining flashback logs imposes comparatively limited overhead on an Oracle database instance. Changed blocks are written from memory to the flashback logs at relatively infrequent, regular intervals, to limit processing and I/O overhead.
To achieve good performance for large production databases with Flashback Database enabled, Oracle recommends the following:
• Use a fast file system for your fast recovery area, preferably without operating system file caching.
Files that the database creates in the fast recovery area, including flashback logs, are typically large. Operating system file caching is typically not effective for these files, and may actually add CPU overhead for reading from and writing to these files. Thus, it is recommended to use a file system that avoids operating system file caching, such as ASM.
• Configure enough disk spindles for the file system that holds the fast recovery area.
For large production databases, multiple disk spindles may be needed to support the required disk throughput for the database to write the flashback logs effectively.
• If the storage system used to hold the fast recovery area does not have nonvolatile RAM, then try to configure the file system on striped storage volumes.
Use a relatively small stripe size such as 128 KB. This technique enables each write to the flashback logs to be spread across multiple spindles, improving performance.
• For large databases, set the initialization parameter LOG_BUFFER to at least 8 MB.
This setting ensures that the database allocates maximum memory (typically 16MB) for writing flashback database logs.
The overhead of logging for Flashback Database depends on the mixture of reads and writes in the database workload. The more write-intensive the workload, the higher the overhead caused by turning on logging for Flashback Database. Queries do not change data and thus do not contribute to logging activity for Flashback Database.
Configuring RMAN in a Data Guard Environment
If you use RMAN in a Data Guard environment, then you can use the CONFIGURE command to register and configure settings for the physical databases in this environment. RMAN uses the DB_UNIQUE_NAME initialization parameter to distinguish one database from another. Thus, it is critical that you maintain the uniqueness of the DB_UNIQUE_NAME in the Data Guard environment.
RMAN must be connected to a recovery catalog when you create or alter a configuration for a database in the Data Guard environment. If you use the SET DBID command to set the DBID in the RMAN session, then you can configure a standby database even when RMAN is not connected as TARGET to a database in the Data Guard environment. You can even create a configuration for a standby database that has not yet been created.
You can use the following forms of the CONFIGURE command:
A Data Guard environment involves many considerations that are only relevant for Data Guard. For example, you can configure an archived redo log deletion policy based on whether archived logs are transferred to or applied on a standby database.
See Also:
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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7,970,120,579,918,262,000
|
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Climax
Climax is an alternative CLI that looks like Go command
GoDoc Travis
Climax is a handy alternative CLI (command-line interface) for Go apps. It looks pretty much exactly like the output of the default go command and incorporates some fancy features from it. For instance, Climax does support so-called topics (some sort of Wiki entries for CLI). You can define some annotated use cases of some command that would get displayed in the help section of corresponding command also.
Why creating another CLI?
I didn't like existing solutions (e.g. codegangsta/cli | spf13/cobra) either for bloated codebase (I dislike the huge complex libraries) or poor output style / API. This project is just an another view on the subject, it has slightly different API than, let's say, Cobra; I find it much more convenient.
A sample application output, Climax produces:
Camus is a modern content writing suite.
Usage:
camus command [arguments]
The commands are:
init starts a new project
new creates flavored book parts
Use "camus help [command]" for more information about a command.
Additional help topics:
writing markdown language cheatsheet
metadata intro to yaml-based metadata
realtime effective real-time writing
Use "camus help [topic]" for more information about a topic.
Here is an example of a trivial CLI application that does nothing, but provides a single string split-like functionality:
demo := climax.New("demo")
demo.Brief = "Demo is a funky demonstation of Climax capabilities."
demo.Version = "stable"
joinCmd := climax.Command{
Name: "join",
Brief: "merges the strings given",
Usage: `[-s=] "a few" distinct strings`,
Help: `Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet amet sit todor...`,
Flags: []climax.Flag{
{
Name: "separator",
Short: "s",
Usage: `--separator="."`,
Help: `Put some separating string between all the strings given.`,
Variable: true,
},
},
Examples: []climax.Example{
{
Usecase: `-s . "google" "com"`,
Description: `Results in "google.com"`,
},
},
Handle: func(ctx climax.Context) int {
var separator string
if sep, ok := ctx.Get("separator"); ok {
separator = sep
}
fmt.Println(strings.Join(ctx.Args, separator))
return 0
},
}
demo.AddCommand(joinCmd)
demo.Run()
Have fun!
About
Climax is an alternative CLI with the human face
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|
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sw24.exe Process Information
Process Name: sw24
Author: Unknown
Download PC Repair Tool & fix sw24.exe Windows errors automatically
System Process:
No
Uses network:
No
Hardware related:
No
Background Process:
Yes
Spyware:
No
Trojan:
No
Virus:
No
Security risk 0-5:
0
What is sw24 exe?
sw24.exe is a process
This executable file is an MSI D.O.T component.(Dynamic Over clocking Technology).
The “.exe” file extension stands for Windows executable file. Any program that is executable has the .exe file extension. Find out if sw24.exe is a virus and sould be removed, how to fix sw24.exe error, if sw24 exe is CPU intensive and slowing down your Windows PC. Any process has four stages of the lifecycle including start, ready, running, waiting, terminated or exit.
Should You Remove sw24 exe?
If you are asking yourself if it is safe to remove sw24.exe from your Windows system then it is understandable that it is causing trouble. sw24.exe is not a critical component and a non-system process. Any process that is not managed by the system is known as non-system processes. It is safe to terminate the non-system process as they do not affect the general functionality of the operating system. However, the program using the non-system processes will be either terminated or halted.
Download PC Repair Tool & fix sw24.exe Windows errors automatically
Fix sw24.exe Error?
There are many reasons why you are seeing sw24.exe error in your Windows system including:
Malicious software
Malicious software infects the system with malware, keyloggers, spyware, and other malicious actors. They slow down the whole system and also cause .exe errors. This occurs because they modify the registry which is very important in the proper functioning of processes.
Incomplete installation
Another common reason behind sw24.exe error is an incomplete installation. It can happen because of errors during installation, lack of hard disk space, and crash during install. This also leads to a corrupted registry causing the error.
Application conflicts and Missing or corrupt windows drivers can also lead to sw24.exe error.
The solution to fixing sw24.exe error include any one of the following
• Make sure your PC is protected with proper anti-virus software program.
• Run a registry cleaner to repair and remove the Windows registry that is causing sw24.exe error.
• Make sure the system’s device drivers are updated properly.
It is also recommended that you run a performance scan to automatically optimize memory and CPU settings.
Download PC Repair Tool & fix sw24.exe Windows errors automatically
Is a sw24.exe CPU intensive?
Windows process requires three resource types to function properly including CPU, Memory, and Network. CPU cycles to do computational tasks, memory to store information and network to communicate with the required services. If any of the resources are not available, it will either get interrupted or stopped.
Any given process has a process identification number(PID) associated with it. A user can easily identify and track a process using its PID. Task Manager is a great way to learn how much resources sw24.exe process is allocating to itself. It showcases process resource usage in CPU/Memory/Disk and Network. If you have a GPU, it will also showcase the percentage of GPU it is using to run the process.
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Reflexology Waterlooville
Waterlooville Reflexology (PO7): There are occasions it seems like a paracetamol or whatever it is you've been swallowing all your life for your aches and pains just does not seem to work anymore. Quite possibly a more suitable substitute might be to have a bash at reflexology or one of the alternative treatments that are available currently. A well known complimentary therapy that's helping large numbers of men and women with their medical problems all over the world, reflexology can often be amazingly effective.
Reflexology in Waterlooville PO7
Reflexology treatment should not be considered as a replacement for conventional medicine, even though it can be extremely effective for a number of illnesses. But instead as an alternate therapy as there are plenty of positive benefits that may be gained from going through a couple of reflexology sessions. Identifying a practiced local reflexologist should be your first step, so that you can tell them about your health concerns and discover if they've got a solution.
Reflexology - An Outline
In areas such as Egypt, Japan, India and China practices that were similar to reflexology were used for millennia. The relief of pain by applying pressure to certain parts of the body (especially the feet and hands), is a concept of reflexology that's been adopted through the ages by several civilizations and peoples. An ENT doctor called William Fitzgerald was the one responsible for the modern day version of reflexology, which was described in his book "Zone Therapy for Relieving Pain in the Home" in 1917. In the nineteen thirties a physiotherapist called Eunice Ingham (1889 - 1974) enlarged on his ideas.
Reflexologists Waterlooville Hampshire PO7
Reflexology is a non-intrusive complementary and alternative medicine that works by controlling the natural energy pathways through the body to reach increased wellness, balance and thus help in the healing process. It's often assumed that a reflexologist works just on the feet of patients, but in fact they may also focus on other parts of the body wherever the reflexes are joined with the energy pathways, for example the ears, hand, face and lower leg. During a reflexology procedure, pressure is applied to areas of the body to realign the energy pathways.
Many common grounds for trying out the expertise of a reflexologist include such things as: period pain, sinusitis, back pain, maternity ailments, bladder complaints, irritable bowel syndrome, joint pain, anxiety, sleeping disorders and migraines. However you should speak with your local Waterlooville reflexologist to find out exactly what they can do for you, as this is certainly not an exhaustive list.
Waterlooville Doctor's Advice PO7
Before beginning any course of treatment a knowledgeable Waterlooville reflexologist will collect a full medical history and ask for details in relation to lifestyle, diet and health. These will assist them to design a treatment plan which is tailored for you. The reflexologist should discuss all the aspects of your treatment plan and just how you will benefit, they'll also be able to address any questions and reservations that you might have about the process.
Because it's over and above their remit and qualifications, no principled reflexologist will suggest diagnoses nor offer professional medical advice. Prior to seeking treatment from a reflexologist or any other alternative practitioner, you must be sure to seek seek medical advice from your G.P. If your doctor believes a course of reflexology might help, then it can be employed together with conventional procedures. While the reflexology healing continues you should still confer with your doctor regarding your progress.
Book Reflexology in Waterlooville
All reflexologists must have the proper insurance cover and have membership of a professional organization, such as the British Reflexology Association (BRA) or the Association of Reflexologists (AOR). A Diploma (Level 3) in Reflexology and Complementary Therapies is recognized as the standard qualification that somebody needs to advertise themselves as a reflexologist. Treating patients in Great Britain is not allowed unless they have achieved this Diploma.
Hand Reflexology
Hand Reflexology Waterlooville PO7
Although in Britain, hand reflexology is not as widely used as traditional foot reflexology, it is equally as effective. Similar to the feet, the hands have reflex zones which connect with the glands and organs, working on them can boost blood circulation and rebalance and relax the whole body. A hand reflexology treatment is often extremely effective even though these reflex points are much deeper and the hands aren't as sensitive as the feet. This type of reflexology treatment could be utilized independently or in combination with a regular foot reflexology treatment.
Reflexology Zones
Foot Chart
Within our face, feet and hands there are various reflex points which are connected to all of the glands, systems and organs within our bodies. A reflexologist will focus on these reflex zones to ease aches and pains in those corresponding parts. It shouldn't be confused with a foot massage (which simply involves rubbing the the feet), since it is focused on pressure zones within the feet. Reflexologists need to hit these deeply situated pressure zones using the appropriate amount of force and at exact angles, meaning it's a lot more than a simple massage. They're going to begin working on one foot at a time and they often administer a little essential oil or tea tree powder onto your foot to make it simpler as they get to work on the pressure points using their thumbs and fingers.
To Summarize
In this article we set out to address a few questions such as "what is reflexology?", "what can be cured by reflexology?", "where can I find a reflexologist near Waterlooville?" and "what qualifications does a reflexologist need?". We've endeavored to address as many of these queries as we can, and in doing so eased any other fears or doubts you might have concerning reflexology in general.
Individuals who have been involved with the advancement of present day reflexology practices include: Eunice Ingham, Doctor William H Fitzgerald (1872 - 1942), Edwin Bowers, Dwight Byers and Doreen Bayly.
Waterlooville reflexologists can usually help with reflexology for migraines, reflexology for prostate problems in Waterlooville, face reflexology, baby reflexology, reflexology for stress, reflexology for snoring, reflexology for constipation, hand reflexology for pcos, reflexology to help sleep in Waterlooville, traditional foot reflexology, reflexology for vertigo, reflexology for kidney stones, reflexology for menstrual cramps in Waterlooville, reflexology for tennis elbow in Waterlooville, reflexology and acupressure in Waterlooville, reflexology for conception, reflexology for endometriosis, reflexology for fertility in Waterlooville, hand reflexology for sleep in Waterlooville, hot stone reflexology, reflexology for asthma in Waterlooville, reflexology for backaches, foot reflexology and other reflexology treatments in Waterlooville, Hampshire.
Reflexology Treatments Waterlooville Hampshire
Also find: Horndean reflexology, Anmore reflexology, Rowlands Castle reflexology, Blendworth reflexology, Clanfield reflexology, Denmead reflexology, Stakes reflexology, Lovedean reflexology, Bedhampton reflexology, Widley reflexology, Red Hill reflexology, Leigh Park reflexology, Havant reflexology, Purbrook reflexology, Cowplain reflexology, Catherington reflexologists and more.
In Hampshire you can also find: Anna Valley reflexologists, Sherfield on Loddon reflexologists, Meonstoke reflexology, Bramshott reflexology treatments, Upper Clatford reflexology treatments, Ringwood reflexology treatments, Sherfield on Loddon reflexology sessions, Netley Marsh reflexology treatments, Rushmoor reflexology sessions, Waltham Chase reflexology, Baughurst reflexology sessions, Sutton Scotney reflexology, Charlton reflexology, Odiham reflexology, Eversley reflexologists, Hyde reflexology, Kingsclere reflexologists, Widley reflexology, Fawley reflexology sessions, Otterbourne reflexologists, Milford on Sea reflexology treatments, Colbury reflexology sessions, Littleton reflexologists, Nursling reflexology sessions.
Places near Waterlooville: Horndean, Clanfield, Stakes, Leigh Park, Purbrook, Cowplain, Lovedean, Anmore, Denmead, Catherington, Havant, Widley, Bedhampton, Rowlands Castle, Blendworth, Red Hill.
Reflexologists in PO7 area.
TOP - Reflexology Waterlooville
Reflexology Healing Waterlooville - Reflexologists Waterlooville - Zone Therapy Waterlooville - Reflexologist Waterlooville - Maternity Reflexology Waterlooville - Reflexology Waterlooville - Weight Loss Reflexology Waterlooville - Foot Reflexology Waterlooville - PO7
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New, please help, no compiler error but does not execute
This is a discussion on New, please help, no compiler error but does not execute within the C Programming forums, part of the General Programming Boards category; Hi everyone I am having some trouble with a program meant to solve for x in ax^2+bx+c=0 given user-input values ...
1. #1
Registered User
Join Date
Feb 2011
Posts
8
New, please help, no compiler error but does not execute
Hi everyone
I am having some trouble with a program meant to solve for x in ax^2+bx+c=0 given user-input values for a, b, and c. This is homework and my professor requires separate functions for the input and operations in the main function and constants for any numbers in equations. The assignment also requires that we use if else statements to determine the value of x. The assignment sheet can be found here: Assignment G1 if you want any more clarification
I have written a code for it that I think should work and the compiler (DEV-C++) does not find any errors. However, when I try to execute the program it allows me to input the values but when I press Enter windows tells me the program has encountered an error and needs to close and asks if I want to send an error report. If any of you can help me I would greatly appreciate it!
Here is the code:
Code:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <math.h>
void getData (double* ptrA, double* ptrB, double* ptrC);
double determine (double coefA, double coefB, double coefC);
int main (void)
{
double coefA;
double coefB;
double coefC;
getData(&coefA, &coefB, &coefC);
determine(coefA, coefB, coefC);
system("pause");
return 0;
}
void getData (double*ptrA, double*ptrB, double*ptrC)
{
double coefA;
double coefB;
double coefC;
printf("This function solves for x in the equation ax*x+bx+c=0. Please\n");
printf("enter values for coefficients a, b, and c: ");
scanf("%f %f %f", coefA, coefB, coefC);
*ptrA = coefA;
*ptrB = coefB;
*ptrC = coefC;
return;
}
double determine (double coefA, double coefB, double coefC)
{
double x;
double det;
double solA;
double solB;
const int number1 = 2;
const int number2 = 4;
double rootDet;
if ((coefA == 0) && (coefB == 0) && (coefC == 0))
printf("Any value of x is a solution.\n");
else if ((coefA == 0) && (coefB == 0) && (coefC != 0))
printf("No solution exists.\n");
else if ((coefA == 0) && (coefB != 0))
{
x = -coefC / coefB;
printf("The value of x is %f\n", x);
}
else if (coefA != 0)
{
det = (coefB * coefB) - (number2 * coefA * coefC);
if (det == 0)
{
x = -coefB / (number1 * coefA);
printf("The value of x is %f.\n", x);
}
else if (det > 0)
{
rootDet = sqrt(det);
solA = (-coefB + rootDet) / (number1 * coefA);
solB = (-coefB - rootDet) / (number1 * coefA);
printf("The solutions are %f and %f.\n", solA, solB);
}
else if (det < 0)
printf("The solutions have an imaginary component.\n");
return;
}}
2. #2
Registered User
Join Date
May 2010
Posts
2,900
Your scanf on line 28 seems to be missing something. See this link for scanf.
Jim
3. #3
Registered User
Join Date
May 2009
Posts
2,747
Code:
scanf("%f %f %f", coefA, coefB, coefC);
scanf requires the address of the variable.
like this
Code:
scanf("%f %f %f", &coefA, &coefB, &coefC);
Note: I think %f is the wrong choice for double; I am not sure.
Tim S.
Last edited by stahta01; 02-23-2011 at 12:09 PM. Reason: Grammer
4. #4
Registered User
Join Date
Feb 2011
Posts
8
Wow, cant believe I missed that! Sorry everyone haha.
Now it executes, however no matter what values I input for a, b, and c, it prints "The value of x is -257._______). The decimals of x are slightly different depending on the coefficients. I have looked over the code a few times and I dont see why I am getting that answer. For some reason the if else statements are not working for 0 0 0 or 0 0 1, etc.
Sorry for the questions, I am completely new to programming and I am not very good with computers in the first place. I'm enjoying it, but get tripped up easily!
Thanks so much guys, I really appreciate the help.
Sam
5. #5
Registered User
Join Date
May 2010
Posts
2,900
Did you change the '%f' to '%lf'?
If so post the current code.
Jim
6. #6
Registered User
Join Date
Nov 2010
Location
Long Beach, CA
Posts
5,640
To follow up with Jim's comment, your compiler should throw a warning when using the wrong specifiers for scanf and printf. If you're not seeing these messages, turn up all the warnings on your compiler. It will help you catch many potential problems. If you are seeing these warnings, then pay attention to them! They're there for a reason. I got your code to work just fine by using %lf in scanf (didn't work without it). Also, you declare determin() to return a double, but you never return a double. Fix that by making it return void.
7. #7
Registered User
Join Date
Feb 2011
Posts
8
No warnings from the compiler whatsoever on the original code I posted. I will definitely crank up the warnings, I feel like a kid with bumper lanes in bowling haha.
changed that and it works perfectly. Thanks so much everyone! Can't believe they were both so simple
Not really an important question but why does %lf work and %f not? My textbook always shows %f in the example codes.
Last edited by svisger; 02-23-2011 at 12:34 PM.
8. #8
Registered User
Join Date
May 2010
Posts
2,900
Basically because the number of bits required to hold a double is larger than the number of bits required to hold float.
Jim
9. #9
Registered User
Join Date
Feb 2011
Posts
8
oh ok that makes sense. Wish my professor would have said it so simply haha.
Thanks again everyone, I really appreciate it
Sam
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Should the next standby power target be 0-watt?
Should the next standby power target be 0-watt?
TitleShould the next standby power target be 0-watt?
Publication TypeReport
Year of Publication2017
AuthorsAlan K Meier, Hans-Paul Siderius
Date Published06/2017
Abstract
The standby power use of appliances continues to consume large amounts of electricity. Considerable success has been made in reducing each device's use, but these savings have been offset by a huge increase in the number of products using standby power and new power requirements for maintaining network connections. Current strategies to reduce standby have limitations and may not be most appropriate for emerging energy consumption trends. A new strategy for further reductions in standby, the "Standzero" option, encourages electrical products to be designed to operate for short periods without relying on mains-supplied electricity. Energy savings are achieved through enhanced efficiency and by harvesting ambient energy. A sensitivity analysis suggests many appliances could be designed to operate for at least an hour without relying on mains power and, in some cases, may be able to operate indefinitely at zero watts until activated.
LBNL Report Number
LBNL-2001019
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Sorocarp
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A sorocarp (from the Greek word soros "a heap" + karpos "fruit") is the fruiting body characteristic of certain cellular slime moulds (e.g., Dictyosteliida). Each sorocarp consists of both a sorophore (stalk) and a sorus.[1][2] Sorocarps release spores.
References[edit]
1. ^ http://www.wordnik.com/words/sorocarp
2. ^ Lawrence, E. 2005. Henderson's Dictionary of Biology, 13th Ed. Prentice Hall, London
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Sunday, August 18, 2019
Home > Health & Fitness > A Simple Plan For Researching
A Simple Plan For Researching
Aspects to Enlighten You More about Dianabol Steroids Side Effects
When you are planning to purchase Dianabol steroids you may be pondering about dianabol side effects and how long do they sustain and if they get to have any brain effects and many more. The steroid is no longer available in the market due to the production of them come to an end many years ago. But you can get it from online stores through websites supplying dianabol steroid made from underground labs.
Understand that Dianabol is commonly raised as Dbol and it is an anabolic steroid allied with the male sex hormone. After testosterone the second steroid to be produced in the market was Dianabol. In the 1960s is when the Dbol soared when athletes began using it to enhance their performance. Anabolic steroids provide androgenic effects such as big muscles in males and the growth of skeletal muscles. Steroids are falling under controlled substances that is in some countries lead by US. However, several of them are used as prescription drugs for the treatment of various ailments such as diseases that cause wasting of lean muscles.
Note that Dianabol can cause dangerous cardiovascular risks. Dianabol might also cause you to have high blood pressure. You might get to have a high risk of a heart attack and other heart diseases due to the changes to cholesterol and blood pressure increase. Enlargement of the left ventricle of the heart is also linked to being as a result of steroid abuse. Change of appearance is another side effect you will face if you get to consume Dianabol. Know that getting to abuse Dianabol will end up causing you to have an oily scalp and thinning of the hair and on the other hand, leading to male-pattern hair loss in men and women. In men who abuse Dianabol gets to cause breast growth and atrophy or shrinking o the testicles. Women who get to abuse Dianabol can find themselves developing excess body hair growth, deepening of the voice and enlargement of the clitoris.
Individuals might experience mood alterations. Note that the abuse of the steroids have been linked with numerous effects on emotional and mood states. You will find that an individual is having extreme mood swings such as aggression, rage and mania that are as the cause of using steroids. You might find that one is facing other effects like depression, irritability, nervousness, and delusions. Note that you might suffer from liver damage or liver cancer, get to have a yellowing skin and eyes known as jaundice when you use Dianabol. Reduced sexual activity and sterility might also be as a result of using Dianabol.
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Patents
1. Advanced Patent Search
Publication numberUS6640840 B1
Publication typeGrant
Application numberUS 09/667,329
Publication dateNov 4, 2003
Filing dateSep 21, 2000
Priority dateSep 25, 1999
Fee statusLapsed
Also published asDE10046052A1, US20040040505
Publication number09667329, 667329, US 6640840 B1, US 6640840B1, US-B1-6640840, US6640840 B1, US6640840B1
InventorsJohn MacNeil
Original AssigneeTrikon Holdings Limited
Export CitationBiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
Delivery of liquid precursors to semiconductor processing reactors
US 6640840 B1
Abstract
This invention relates to methods and apparatus for delivering liquid precursors to semi-conductor processing apparatus. The liquid precursor delivery system is generally indicated at (10) and includes a source (11), an inlet tube (12), a two-way valve (13), a pump assembly (14), an outlet tube (15), a shut-off valve (16) and a flash evaporator (17). The pump assembly (14) is in the form of a syringe or variable volume pump and is controlled by a combination of a step motor (27) and a linear encoder (30). The arrangement is such that unused liquid precursor can be returned to the source.
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Claims(4)
What is claimed is:
1. Apparatus for delivering a desired volume of liquid precursor, comprising:
a semiconductor processing reactor having an evaporator connected thereto;
a source for the liquid precursor;
a variable volume pump that can deliver various volumes of the precursor from said source to said reactor via said evaporator, said variable volume pump including a pump chamber connected to said source for the precursor and to the evaporator, and a piston that is linearly displaceable to pump a volume of the precursor from said chamber corresponding to the displacement of said piston;
a detector which detects the relative position of said piston;
a motor connected to said piston and operable to drive said piston linearly; and
a control circuit operatively connected to said motor so as to control the operation of said motor and operatively connected to said detector so as to receive signals therefrom indicative of the relative position of said piston, said control circuit operating under feedback from said detector to stop said motor when said piston reaches a given position such that the desired volume of liquid precursor, independent of the volume of said chamber, is expelled from said chamber to said reactor;
wherein said apparatus further comprises an inlet tube leading from said chamber of said variable volume pump towards said source for the precursor, an outlet tube leading from said chamber of said variable volume pump towards said reactor, and a valve operable to selectively place said inlet tube and said outlet tube in open communication with said chamber; and
wherein said control circuit is operatively connected to said valve and to said reactor so as to control said valve to place said chamber of said variable volume pump in open communication with said inlet tube and to operate said motor to drive said piston in a direction that causes said precursor to be induced into said chamber, while said reactor is not processing with precursor from said source.
2. Apparatus for delivering a desired volume of liquid precursor, comprising:
a semiconductor processing reactor having an evaporator connected thereto;
a source for the liquid precursor;
a variable volume pump that can deliver various volumes of the precursor from said source to said reactor via said evaporator, said variable volume pump including a pump chamber connected to said source for the precursor and to the evaporator, and a piston that is linearly displaceable to pump a volume of the precursor from said chamber corresponding to the displacement of said piston;
a detector which detects the relative position of said piston;
a motor connected to said piston and operable to drive said piston linearly; and
a control circuit operatively connected to said motor so as to control the operation of said motor and operatively connected to said detector so as to receive signals therefrom indicative of the relative position of said piston, said control circuit operating under feedback from said detector to stop said motor when said piston reaches a given position such that the desired volume of liquid precursor, independent of the volume of said chamber, is expelled from said chamber to said reactor;
wherein said apparatus further comprises an inlet tube leading from said chamber of said variable volume pump towards said source for the precursor, an outlet tube leading from said chamber of said variable volume pump towards said reactor, and a valve operable to selectively place said inlet tube and said outlet tube in open communication with said chamber; and
wherein said control circuit is operative to control said valve to place said chamber of said variable volume pump in open communication with said outlet and inlet tubes and to operate said motor to drive said piston in a direction that expels precursor from said chamber after said piston has reached said given position in said chamber, whereby said variable volume pump returns undelivered precursor to said source.
3. Apparatus for delivering a desired volume of liquid precursor, comprising:
a semiconductor processing reactor having an evaporator connected thereto;
a source for the liquid precursor;
a variable volume pump that can deliver various volumes of the precursor from said source to the reactor via said evaporator, said pump having a pump chamber;
an inlet tube leading from said pump chamber towards said source for the precursor; an outlet tube leading from said pump chamber towards the reactor;
a valve operable to selectively place said inlet tube and said outlet tube in open communication with said variable volume pump; and
a control circuit operative to control said valve to place said inlet tube in open communication with said variable volume pump and to concurrently operate said motor to drive said pump in a direction that expels precursor from said chamber after said pump has expelled the desired volume of precursor to the reactor via said outlet tube, wherein said variable volume pump returns undelivered precursor to said source via said inlet tube.
4. A method of delivering a liquid precursor to a semiconductor processing reactor, said method comprising:
determining a desired volume of the liquid precursor that is to be delivered to the reactor for carrying out a process therein;
charging a chamber of a variable volume pump, connected to the reactor via an outlet tube, with the liquid precursor from a source of the liquid precursor;
driving a piston of the pump to expel liquid precursor from the chamber and to the reactor via the outlet tube, the displacement of the piston from a starting position corresponding to the volume of liquid precursor expelled;
monitoring the position of the piston relative to the starting position thereof; and
stopping the piston, based on said monitoring, when the relative position of the piston is indicative of the piston having expelled the desired volume of the liquid precursor from the chamber of the pump, whereby the desired volume of liquid precursor delivered to the reactor is independent of the volume of the chamber of the pump;
said method further comprising alternately placing the chamber of the pump in open communication with an inlet tube, connected to a source of the liquid precursor, and then with the outlet tube; and driving the piston of the pump in one direction when the chamber is opened to the inlet tube to induce the liquid precursor into the chamber; wherein the piston of the pump is driven in the other direction when the chamber is placed in open communication with the outlet tube to expel the liquid precursor from the chamber; and
said method further comprising driving the piston of the pump in said another direction when the chamber is placed in open communication with the inlet tube to return to the source an amount of liquid precursor that remains in the chamber after the desired volume of the liquid precursor has been expelled from the chamber, and before the chamber is again charged with the liquid precursor.
Description
This invention relates to methods and apparatus for delivering liquid precursors to semiconductor processing reactors.
There is a good discussion of various prior art proposals for delivering such precursors in the preamble of U.S. Pat. No. 5,620,524 and the reader is referred to this. In general a liquid precursor will be a gas at the low pressures, which typically exist in the reactor (e.g. 1 torr), but at atmospheric pressure (15 torr) they will be in their liquid state. This gives rise to practical delivery and measurement problems, which are exacerbated by the highly reactive nature of many of these precursors, which limit the choice of engineering materials that may be used. Most liquid precursor delivery systems, which are used in wafer processing, are of one of the following three types:
1. There is vaporisation of the liquid and the use of a gas mass flow controller.
2. Use of a liquid mass flow controller.
3. A carrier gas is passed through a liquid in a “bubbler” to vaporise some of the liquid in the carrier gas bubbles.
Whilst gas mass flow measuring instruments are widely used, they present problems when the liquid has to be vaporised for mass flow measurement. A large reservoir of vaporised liquid is required, which increases the residence time of the vaporised liquid at a raised temperature. For peroxide, which is a useful precursor, decomposition may commence before it reaches the process chamber. Liquid mass flow controllers are capable of giving good flow control but are liable to instabilities, believed to be caused by bubbles forming in the mass flow controller whilst in its idle state and the cold liquid cooling the controller can cause calibration drift. Bubblers require a carrier gas and the lower the vapour pressure, the less liquid that is taken up as vapour by the bubbles. Therefore, for low vapour pressure liquids, a high flow of carrier gas is required and that may be incompatible with the process.
As alternatives to these approaches, an arrangement similar to that shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,620,524 has been tried comprising a positive displacement pump in combination with a narrow bore outlet pipe, but as well as difficulties in selecting appropriate materials for such pumps and other parts, flow variations are experienced due to variations in bore of the narrow bore pipe, necessary to buffer the low pressure chamber from the pump. Such arrangements are susceptible to variations because the flow restriction of the narrow bore pipe dominates as the pump is essentially only a pressurisation device. The results of this method are referred to as “standard” in FIG. 3 below.
A simpler version of this system can be used if a pre-set or fixed flow is acceptable. The system then entirely depends on the action of ambient pressure upon the liquid to replace the use of the pump and the flow restricting tubing to control flow. This system makes use of the fact that clean rooms are pressure controlled environments at slightly above atmospheric pressure. The system is still however dependent on the internal bore diameter of the pipe being accurate and in suitably compatible materials this is not often the case. Specific system calibration can therefore become necessary and different pipe lengths may need to be used depending on the actual bore diameter. The results of this method are referred to as “fixed flow” in FIG. 3 below.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,620,524 describes an alternative using out-of-phase piston pumps, but it relies on the system knowing various characteristics of the precursor and monitoring the temperature and pressure of the precursor in order to deliver a desired mass of precursor.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,098,741 describes the use of a positive displacement pump to feed a liquid precursor to a CVD chamber, but the system requires the use of a pressure metre controlling a variable orifice valve to overcome the problem of dissolved gases.
From one aspect the invention consists in apparatus for delivering a liquid precursor to a semiconductor processing reactor comprising a source of a liquid precursor, a volume calibrated positive displacement pump drawing liquid precursor from the source via an input path and for delivering, along an output path, (preferably without any pressure control and/or pulsing) a known volume of liquid precursor to the reactor. Either just prior to the reactor or within the reactor the liquid precursor may be evaporated, for example by a flash evaporator.
The apparatus may further include a valve for connecting the pump to the input path or the output path. The apparatus may further comprise control means for controlling the pump and the valve whereby the pump draws liquid in, whilst the reactor is not processing with this precursor. Additionally or alternatively the apparatus may further include control means for controlling the pump and the valve whereby the pump returns any undelivered precursor to the source. This recucling, particularly when combined with the pump only being charged when needed, significantly reduces the presence of dissolved gases.
The pump may be in the form of a syringe pump.
The source may include another reservoir of liquid precursor and preferably the source may include at least two bottles or reservoirs and means for automatically connecting one bottle or reservoir to the inlet path as the other becomes empty.
The apparatus preferably includes a linear encoder controlled stepper motor for driving the pump to deliver the known volume.
From another aspect the invention consists in a method of delivering a liquid precursor to a semiconductor processing reactor including:
1. Delivering a liquid precursor, along an input path, into a volume calibrated positive displacement pump from a source of liquid precursor;
2. Delivering, along an output path, preferably without pressure control and/or pulsing a known volume of liquid precursor to the reactor.
The liquid precursor may be evaporated either just before it reaches the reactor or within the reactor.
This may further include permanently connecting the pump to the input path and the output path. Additionally or alternatively, after each volume delivery, the pump may return any remaining liquid to the source, before drawing a fresh charge.
Although the invention has been defined above it is to be understood it includes any inventive combination of the features set out above or in the following description.
The invention may be performed in various ways and specific embodiments will now be described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawing in which:
FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a liquid precursor delivery system;
FIG. 2 is a graph indicating flow rate from the system; and
FIG. 3 is a further graph indicating variations in deposition rates using a variety of liquid precursor delivery systems.
A liquid precursor delivery system is generally indicated at 10 in FIG. 1. The system 10 includes a carriage 29 is revealed very precisely by the linear encoder 30, the position of the piston 26, and hence the volume of liquid displaced, can be very tightly controlled and without relying on the pump being operated over a precisely set time period. Further the whole arrangement enables liquid to be expelled at high pressure.
The pump assembly 14 and valves 13, 16 and 22 are all under the control of a control circuit 31, which is in turn responsive to the linear encoder 30 and the level sensors 21, as well as other processing information from the associated reactor.
In use the stepper motor 27 initially draws the carriage 29 in a downward direction, which moves the piston in a withdrawing sense within the tube 25. With the valve 13 set to connect the pump 24 to the liquid source 11, the liquid precursor can be drawn from one or other of the bottles 18, 19 depending on the position of the valve 22. Once the pump 24 is charged, the stepper motor 27 stops. The valve 13 is then switched to connect the syringe pump 24 to the outlet tube 15 and at the right moment, in processing, the shut off valve 16 is opened and the stepper motor reverses the motion to drive the piston 26 back within the tube 25 causing liquid precursor to be delivered into the flash evaporator 17. The volume of precursor source generally indicated at 11, an inlet tube 12, a two-way valve 13, a pump assembly, generally indicated at 14, an outlet tube 15, a shut off valve 16, and a flash evaporator 17.
The liquid precursor source 11 comprises a pair of bottles 18, 19 contained within a temperature controlled chamber 20, level sensors, schematically indicated at 21 detect the level of liquid in the respective bottles 18, 19. The bottles 18, 19 are connected to a valve 22 and thence to the inlet tube 12. The valve 22 is arranged to connect one or other of the bottles 18, 19 to the tube 12.
The pump assembly 14 is of the type generally known as a syringe or variable volume pump, such as, for example, made by Lee Products in their LPV series. Such pumps have a syringe 24 comprising a tube 25 and a piston 26. The piston is linked to a stepper motor 27 and in general means are provided for detecting the linear movement of the piston to determine the volume of liquid expelled from the syringe.
In the illustrated arrangement the stepper motor 27 drives a lead screw 28 which in turn linearly moves a carriage 29 that is connected to the free end of the piston 26. The linear position of the carriage 29 is detected by a linear encoder 30. As the position of the liquid expelled is directly related to the travel of the piston 26 and hence of the carriage 29. This can be monitored by the control circuit 31 via the linear encoder 30 and as soon as the desired volume is achieved, the stepper motor 27 is turned off. Thus it will be seen that very precise volumes of liquid precursor can be delivered at high pressure into the evaporator without the problems which arise with other systems.
It is preferred that the syringe is filled with more than the required volume to prevent any shortage in delivery. Conveniently, then the unexpelled liquid can be returned to the bottles 18, 19 via a valve 13, tube 12 and valve 23 so that the liquid precursor can be kept in the best conditions possible.
The provision of two bottles enables one bottle to be switched over when it becomes empty, without any interruption in processing being necessary.
It is thus anticipated that wafers or batches of wafers can be introduced into the reactor chamber, a precise volume of liquid precursor delivered into the chamber via the flash evaporator 17 and thereafter the pump can be emptied and recharged ready for the next wafer or batch.
FIG. 2 illustrates the linearity in flow rate that can be achieved with the system of the invention and hence the accuracy of volume delivery.
FIG. 3 illustrates the resultant benefits in terms of repeatability deposition rate. It will be seen that the syringe produces a very repeatable level of deposition using a hydrogen peroxide system as compared with earlier delivery proposals.
The system has a number of advantages:
1. It can be self primed at the beginning of a run and hence clear any lines of degraded hydrogen peroxide and bubbles from the line and syringe.
2. The syringe need only be filled immediately prior to the process avoiding degradation of the liquid precursor.
3. The delivery rate can be fully programmable.
4. The delivery rate can be fully monitored by the linear encoder.
5. Any excess liquid precursor is returned to the source at the end of the process.
6. Continuous running through the automatic bottle changeover can be easily achieved. These benefits have been particularly noted with such precursors as hydrogen peroxide which do tend to degrade when not kept under suitable conditions. The delivery system also works very well with hydrogen peroxide being accurate to below 1 gram per minute. Flow rates can be easily changed without any significant loss of accuracy simply by changing the pump tubes and the matching pistons.
Experiments, which are reported, in our copending UK Patent application 0001179.1 entitled “Method and Apparatus for forming a film on a substrate” using conventional systems and then a syringe pump to deliver cyclohexyldimethoxymethylsilane show that for at least some precursors and processes acceptable results are only obtained when a syringe pump assembly as described is used. This disclosure is incorporated herein by reference.
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Classifications
U.S. Classification141/1, 118/715, 141/105, 257/E21.241, 118/726, 141/126, 141/102, 141/127, 141/198, 257/E21.279, 141/104
International ClassificationC23C16/40, F04B19/04, C23C16/56, F17D1/14, H01L21/3105, H01L21/205, H01L21/316, H01L21/00
Cooperative ClassificationH01L21/31612, C23C16/401, C23C16/56, Y02E60/34, H01L21/3105
European ClassificationC23C16/40B, C23C16/56, H01L21/3105, H01L21/316B2B
Legal Events
DateCodeEventDescription
Sep 21, 2000ASAssignment
Owner name: TRIKON HOLDINGS LIMITED, GREAT BRITAIN
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5,782,636,591,712,299,000
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Modifying orthotics
ICB Lower limb biomechanics
One issue that often surfaces when using orthotic products is, whether there is a need to heat mould and apply additions or grind and modify the orthotics?
SAVE 10% OFF ICB PRODUCTS WITH DISCOUNT CODE: 02ICB10 Offer online only!
The question of heat moulding often arises and the answer is simply, it may not be necessary in every situation. However, heat moulding does assist in avoiding patient compliance issues.
Using additions to improve the treatment of the basic orthotic foot bed, is one, in which many practitioners are not that familiar with in the modification process.
Most additions are used to treat specific conditions by providing the support which has been lost, such as: metatarsal domes to support the transverse arch or a heel lift to support a short leg.
Many orthotic manufacturers promote their products as being one which can be taken from the display pack and placed in the shoe with no further alteration needed. This may be so for some patients, however, simple adjustments may provide the necessary comfort and treatment result the patient requires.
A key element to achieving a satisfactory treatment commences with checking that the ‘off the shelf’ orthotic contains at least a basic rearfoot varus angle to enable correct alignment for the patient.
Products available in pharmacies often only provide arch support without attending to rearfoot (calcaneal) control.
Practitioners should check the rearfoot position by simply viewing and where necessary measuring, using a biomechanical protractor.
Measuring, using a biomechanical protractor.
ICB heat mouldable orthotics exhibit a 50 rearfoot varus post to align the calcaneus with the average tibial varum angle, thus placing the foot into the patients ideal position.
ICB heat mouldable orthotics
View ICB Products
Reducing excess pronation can have substantial benefits, such as reducing internal tibial rotation.
ICB Orthotics Reducing Pronation
The product that a practitioner chooses to use, should be one which is easy to modify and alter, thus providing the necessary treatment requirements. For example, ability to incorporate an intrinsic dome into the orthotic device, thus providing the patient with a product with increased functionality or provide more comfort to the wearer.
Orthotic Heat Moulded
Use a heat gun to mould the dome into the plantar surface. (see other videos on Youtube)
Simple add on additions, such as, medial flanges can reduce medial rubbing of the foot on the shoe or provide increased support for patients such as CP suffers and excessive pronators can be quite useful.
ICB orthotic medial flange
For practitioners who want to modify the actual orthotic by grinding , there are many simple adjustments that can be made, such as a deflection for a plantarflexed 1st . (see below)
Orthotic modified by grinding
Pictured below is a 1st metatarsal deflection for a 2/3 or 3/4 length orthotic.
1st metatarsal deflection for a three quarter length orthotic
The ability to adjust and modify the product within the clinic can be a great asset. The product should have the ability to be modified by either application of heat (using a heat gun) and also be a material that can be ground and shaped using either bench grinders or hand grinders.
Modifying an Orthotic
(above) Deflection for dropped metatarsal heads using heat and a spoon to create a depression .
For those practitioners with higher hand skills the grinding option is fast and extremely effective.
One very useful modification is the use of a full length ICB orthotic product to fashion a Morton’s ramp in which toe separator is an incorporated feature.
The steps to creating this modification are as follows:
Step 1
Mark the distal position of the ramp, 5mm distal to the hallux.
Modifying Orthotics
Step 2
Mark out the Morton’s ramp ensuring that it sits between the hallux and the 2nd phalange.
Mortons Ramp
Step 3
Add the toe separator shape and cut to shape.
Toe Separator
Step 4
Use the heat gun and the grinder to position the toe separator and smooth down the edges.
ICB Heat Gun
ICB Heat Moulded Orthotic
View ICB Products
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≡ Menu
Trends in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Research
This paper examines the quantity and focus of CFS research over time and draws some conclusions regarding their implications for CFS patients.
Background
After CFS burst upon the scene in the mid eighties it didn’t take it long to become a major research topic. The first study PubMed cites on CFS (in the 1980’s) was published in 1987* and by 1988/9 the field was up and running. Since 1991 papers with CFS or its equivalent in the title have never numbered less than 100 a year.
Similarly the number of citations PubMed cites for ‘Chronic fatigue syndrome’ are astounding; a search on 2/22/05 brought up 2949 citations with some connection to CFS. These numbers appear at first blush to demonstrate an impressive commitment by the medical establishment to the resolution of CFS.
Progress in our understanding of CFS, however, has been slow. The cause of the disease is still obscure and treatments are still largely ineffective. Instead of addressing the core dysfunctions found in CFS, physicians are often relegated to treat it symptomatically.
There is still no accepted biomarker for this disease and, of course, we still have its unfortunate name. While few in the medical field, at least, appear to believe it has a psychological origin, the role psychology plays in the course of the disease has raised quite controversial. Few findings in this disease, in fact, are without controversy.
The survey was prompted by the discordance between all this activity and the lack of progress in the disease. How could we – 18 years after the ‘advent’ of CFS and some 3000 PubMed citations later – still be saddled with this unfortunate name? Why is there still no test for CFS or an acceptable definition of it?
It is true that CFS is a very complex disease that is difficult to analyze given its changing definitions and the different subsets of patients found within it. But is it THAT mysterious? THAT impervious to investigation? THAT much of an enigma? Or have other factors contributed to the slow pace of knowledge? This question prompted a survey of how the quantity, focus and ‘potential’ of CFS research has changed over time.
The survey
The papers included in this survey were those cited when ‘chronic fatigue syndrome’ was entered into the search bar at PubMed. PubMed is a search engine sponsored by the National Library of Medicine that accesses over 15 million citations of biomedical papers dating back to the 1950’s (but not the Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (JCFS)).
A list of titles and abstracts for the JCFS dating back to 1998 on the Haworth Press website were used) Only those articles (with a very few exceptions) with chronic fatigue syndrome or myalgic encephalitis in the title were included. (Prior to 1992 when the term CFS was essentially codified citations with pseudonyms for CFS such as postviral fatigue syndrome, EBV syndrome, etc. were included.)
Based either on the title or the abstract provided by PubMed or the Haworth web site the papers were grouped into the following broad categories based on my assessment of their primary orientation; clinical, immune, psychological, brain/CNS. endocrine, metabolic, cardiac, oxidative, cognitive – neuropsychological, sleep, muscles, tilt table, others. A few papers had more than one focus.
The survey examined PubMed citations from 1988/9, 1991, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2003 and 2004 and JCFS papers from 2000, 2003 and 2004.
Quantity
The most surprising finding was that except for very recently over the past 13 years the quantity of PubMed citations has remained more or less stable. One would have thought that as the field matured and became better known the number of citations would increase. Except perhaps for the last year or so this has not occurred. (The number of articles in the table below appears to pick up a bit after 1997.
This was due to the publication of the Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. This publication may have (a) sparked interest in the field and/or (b) provided a venue for theories, studies, etc. not readily accepted in other publications. The trend in PubMed cited articles was flat.) An average of approximately 130 articles that have CFS or myalgic encephalitis in their title have been published every year for the last 10 years (based on 1994, 97, 00, 03, 04).
Trends in CFS research
Total % Clinical % Immune % Psychology % Brain/CNS % Endocrinology % Epidemiology % Cognitive
1988-9
77
36
39
0
0
0
0
0
1991
117
34
31
19
3
1
2
1
1994
132
24
24
14
8
2
4
4
1997
122
21
17
22
7
6
3
7
*2000
130
25
13
12
4
8
2
4
*2003
140
16
24
17
12
8
5
0
*2004
148
28
14
11
15
8
5
3
%Meta-bolism %Oxida-tion %Cardiac %Sleep %OrthostaticIntolerance %Muscles %Others
1988-9
0
2
2
1
0
1
5
1991
4
0
0
0
0
3
3
1994
2
0
2
4
0
2
7
1997
6
0
1
2
3
0
5
*2000
7
3
1
0
4
1
13
*2003
1
5
2
2
4
4
3
*2004
2
3
0
2
3
1
10
*contains citations from the Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Trends in research focus
One would expect to see different trends of interest emerge over time in any research area and this has proved true in CFS. The percentage of papers focused on the immune system – the dominant early interest in CFS – declined from a high of 45% of citations in 1988-89 to about 17% of citations in 2000/03 and 04.
Within the immune category research trends have changed as well; research into viruses, while still a significant topic, has declined markedly since 1991 (1991 – 20 citations; 2003/4 – 5 citations) as interest in bacteria (mycoplasma, chlamydiae, staphylococcus) has picked up (1991/1993 – 0 studies; 2003/2004 – 10 studies).
Another area of diminishing interest have been the clinical aspects of CFS. The clinical category primarily contains doctor to doctor talk; it centers on the diagnosis, treatment, management and prognosis of CFS as well as reviews of CFS and discussions regarding CFS’s validity (controversy). Still one of the most cited subjects (@20-25%) it makes up substantially smaller portion of the total citations than it used to (30—35%).
Interest in the psychological aspects of CFS has also changed dramatically over time. While no interest was seen early on (0 citations 1988/9 – 0) psychology in CFS rapidly assumed a major focus (1991 – 22). Psychology studies reached a peak in 2001 but have fluctuated dramatically and may have even declined since then.
The two years with the lowest number of psychologically oriented studies were 2000 (16) and 2004 (11). Within the field the focus of interest has changed dramatically. In the early 1990’s depression was a major topic but has been replaced since about 1997 by cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) was a major research interest.
CBT et. al. accounted for from 25% to 60% of psychology citations in 1997, 2000, 2003, 2004. Aside from these two topics, there appears to be little coherence in this field; research topic range from psychiatric morbidity to the effects of birth order to the radicalization of the self, to parenting, etc.
While interest in the immunological and clinical aspects of CFS appears to have declined, interest in three fields; the brain/CNS, endocrinology and oxidation/metabolism has increased sharply in the last 4 to 7 years. Interest in the brain/CNS has, not surprisingly given the cognitive difficulties associated with CFS, always garnered some interest but in the last two years that interest has jumped markedly with 12 and 14% of all citations devoted to it. Two subtopics, in particular – serotonin and cholinergic function – have gained in popularity lately.
The endocrine system attracted little interest early on. No citations concerning the endocrine system occurred in 1988/91 and only 2 in 1991 and 1994. Since 2000, however, over ten papers have been published on endocrinological topics every year with a dominant focus on cortisol.
Since its discovery in CFS in 1995 by Rowe, orthostatic intolerance has remained a relatively small but nevertheless consistent source of citations. Similarly, while not being a major source of citations, free radicals and the oxidation/antioxidant balance (@4) arrived as a research interest in CFS in the last four years.
It is difficult to discern any trends in muscle activity, metabolic processes or sleep. Interest in each has been present since the early days of CFS research but none has become a major research topic and interest in each has fluctuated greatly. Driven primarily by one research group, interest in cardiology has been consistent but low.
Interestingly alternative health therapies, long a treatment mainstay for CFS patients, were a major source of citations for the first time in 2004 with 8 citations devoted to them. In the past five years genetics has arrived on the scene with several citations devoted to it in 2000, 2003 and 2004.
The implications for CFS patients
What do these numbers mean for CFS patients? Can they be confident that the medical research community has marshalled it’s considerable resources on their behalf? Even if the numerical trends are flat or only mildly positive one would think 130 or so ‘papers’ a year would be sufficient to guarantee real progress.
It sounds, after all, like a lot of work is being done – enough one would think to give CFS patients hope that before too many more years pass, significant breakthroughs in the understanding of and treatment of their disease will occur. A closer look at the ‘research’ cited in PubMed indicates this is anything but true. Few of the citations for CFS signify papers that have the potential to make a difference in the understanding of CFS.
A mixed bag
The papers cited by PubMed vary widely in focus and quality. PubMed citations include everything from letters to reviews, from small one page studies to complex, multi-dimensional studies, from one person treatment ‘trials’ to double- blinded, placebo controlled, multi-group treatment trials.
In PubMed papers on CFS in animals and birth order sit next to large, multi-year studies on prevalence in humans, e.g. a citation in PubMed is not necessarily indicative of a significant contribution to CFS.
What a person suffering from CFS really desires is a breakthrough in our understanding or treatment of CFS. In lieu of that they want to know that significant work is being undertaken to understand CFS. They want to feel that the depth of the research effort into CFS is somehow congruent with the pain caused by CFS; that something that can so overwhelmingly alter their lives is being dealt with seriously by the medical research community.
They want to have an idea that significant progress will occur in CFS before the productive period of their lives is over. The next part of this paper, which examines whether this appears likely to occur, determines how many of the 3000 or so papers PubMed cites have the potential to significantly advance our understanding of CFS.
In order to do that distinctions are made between three categories of papers; insignificant, important but not difference making and potentially difference making papers.
Unimportant vs important papers
A certain number of papers cited by PubMed every year have little change of making an important contribution. Chief among these are papers published in a foreign language. These papers are often not abstracted and are probably little read. These papers can be surprisingly abundant; in 2004 they made up about 6% of all PubMed citations on CFS.
Important vs potentially difference-making papers
Some papers are important to the overall understanding and treatment of CFS but have no potential to advance our understanding of the biological processes occurring in CFS. They mostly involve medical professionals talking to medical professionals about peripheral issues common to any disease; i.e. how to characterize, diagnose or treat it, how common it is, what issues its patients face. They mainly occur in the following categories.
Clinical (@20-25%) – A substantial number of papers every year focus on the clinical aspects of CFS (diagnosis, management, prognosis, controversy).
Psychological (@17%) – It is clear, at least to CFS patients, that psychological studies will have little effect on the ultimate resolution of this disease. At their best they may help CFS patients cope with rigors of CFS. At their worst they divert attention and funding from more fundamental aspects of CFS and alienate CFS patients.
Epidemiological (@5%) – Epidemiological papers are vitally important for assessing the prevalence and economic costs of CFS and providing a rationale for more funding. Given the abysmal levels of current funding these papers may, in fact, be the most important papers published. Nevertheless they do not contribute to our understanding of the biological processes operating in CFS.
Neuropsychological/cognitive – (@ 4%) These papers elucidate the problems in cognitive functioning found in CFS patients. As such they provide evidence of brain dysfunction in CFS that is important for disability claims and for promoting more interest in the CFS. They do not, however, advance our knowledge of CFS pathophysiology.
According to this survey about half of the papers PubMed cites every year deal do not have the potential to further our understanding of the biological processes occurring in CFS.
This leaves us with about 70 articles published a year that might make a more less immediate difference in understanding the cause, mapping out its dysfunctions or uncovering a treatment for CFS. Even that sounds like a good number – 70 papers a year should surely offer real hope for CFS patients. Even this number is misleadingly high, however.
Potentially Difference Making Papers – Two general categories of potentially difference making papers can be formed; theoretical papers and studies. While purely theoretical papers have the ability to make a difference in CFS by elucidating creative new approaches to CFS, their impact is always impossible to ascertain at the time of publication. Their impact is further obscured by the fact that many, probably most theoretical papers receive either no or inadequate follow up. Ultimately, the only papers able to have animmediate and significant impact on CFS patients are ones examining the biological processes (the pathophysiology) present in CFS. In a very real way they are the papers that really matter.
Surprisingly, though, given their fundamental importance, studies addressing CFS pathophysiology are not common. Many more papers are published every year on essentially peripheral subjects such as clinical reviews, psychological studies, etc. In 2004 PubMed listed only 35 studies (not including treatment trials) that actually examined examined an aspect of CFS pathophysiology. Thus of all the citations that PubMed pulls for CFS only about 15% of them are engaged in uncovering the cause of CFS.
Even within this category there are subcategories and gradations of value. About 30% of all studies of CFS pathophysiology in 2004 simply undertook to confirm or deny prior findings (apoptosis, Th1/Th2 cytokine imbalance, ACTH/cortisol, salivary cortisol, serum erythropoietin). These studies are an important part of the march of science but they are not difference making because they do not forward the science, i.e. they do not bring our understanding of CFS to a deeper level.
A significant number of studies every year are exploratory studies that seek to determine if X occurs in CFS or not (gene expression, brain imaging, EBV, borna virus antibodies, urinary electrophoretic profiles). Is there brain damage in CFS? Is gene expression different? Is X virus present in CFS? Are abnormal levels of sympathetic nervous system activity present in CFS? These studies advance our understanding of CFS but their significance is unclear as well. They open up new avenues for research that may or may not pay off in the future.
The really difference making studies, the ones that might send a jolt of excitement up a patients or researchers spine, are those that have identified an abnormality and are working their way down a chain of causation to its source nd thus to CFS. Only a few papers in 2004, however, actually extended our knowledge of the causal factors of CFS. The corticosteroid gene polymorphism study, for instance, posits a cause for the low cortisol levels present in some CFS patients. The skin vasodilation study examined potential causes of skin vasodilation and by extension orthostatic intolerance.
One reason these papers are so few and much of the emphasis in CFS research is still on exploratory studies is that only a few abnormalities have been consistently found in CFS. Several factors contribute to this including poor funding, different diagnostic criteria over time, the lack of standardization, the occurrence of subsets in CFS, and the waxing and waning nature of the disease.
The lack of standardization is puzzling given the sophistication of the medical research establishment but is a very real problem. Two recent overviews of immune and neuroendocrine research in CFS cited the lack of standardization and poor study methodology as reasons for the conflicting results sometimes seen in CFS research studies. Nancy Klimas was able to explain away several inconsistencies concerning cytokine studies simply by noting the different laboratory techniques used. This problem has been frequently noted by the NIH yet it has taken no steps to address it.
Funding woes
The greatest problem facing CFS research, however, is inadequate funding. This is a disease, after all, that can affect the immune, cardiovascular, endocrine and nervous systems.. In how many diseases are brain scans and spinal taps as well as hormonal, immune, orthostatic, metabolic, sleep and exercise tests part of the research protocol? In how many diseases do psychological studies take up a significant amount of research funds?
Despite its needs CFS remains one of the most poorly funded diseases in the United States. Despite productivity losses to the US economy from disabled CFS patients totaling some $9,000,000,000 a year, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) saw fit last year to fund CFS research to the tune of only $6,000,000. Of the 175 research areas funded by the NIH in 2004 CFS was 170th in funds awarded.
The NIH gave temporal mandibular joint (TMJ) researchers 3’xs as much money as CFS; Lyme’s disease was given 5 x’s the money CFS was; Crohn’s disease 9 x’s, anthrax research 17 x’s. asthma 50 x’s and AIDS 500 x’s as much money. Just theincrease in asthma funding over the past two years – the increase! – was five times the total funding given CFS last year. This does not take into account the fact that a significant proportion of the funds the NIH says were devoted to ‘CFS research’ did not investigate CFS pathophysiology.
It is clear there is simply too little money and too many areas of interest for research in any one area to move ahead rapidly in CFS. Research into serotonin activity in CFS provides a case study of how slowly even a ‘major research effort’ proceeds in CFS.
Serotonin: A Case Study: Bakheit et. al. first uncovered evidence of increased serotonergic HPA axis activity in response to busiprone in CFS patients in 1992. In the same year Demitrack et. al. found evidence of increased serotonin activity in the spinal fluid. Since 1992 seven studies (about one every other year) have assessed serotonergic levels or activity in the spinal fluid, hypothalamus and brain in CFS using different serotonin agonists and different techniques (PET scan, CSF levels, provocation). Some heterogeneous findings have been found but for the most part studies have indicated increased serotonin activity in CFS.
Thirteen years after serotonin levels were first seen to be abnormal in CFS researchers now appear to beapproaching a consensus that serotonergic activity is increased in CFS. That is a long time in the life of a CFS patient. It is about third of ones productive years. It is a very long time to wait for researchers to reach an agreement about the importance of one substance – and researchers are still not there yet. That consensus may still be several years and several studies away.
What is most unsettling about this situation is that serotonin is not an obscure compound. One of the major neurotransmitters in the body, serotonin is involved in gastric secretion, and smooth muscle (vascular) and central nervous system activity.
A whole class of drugs, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) has been developed to battle depression and other mood disorders. Because serotonin has the potential to effect so many different systems, one would think serotonin activity in CFS would have been assessed extensively once studies indicating a possible upregulation was present.
Instead the ‘serotonin question’ has been attacked in a piecemeal fashion by researchers using different protocols. Remember we have hardly even begun to assess the cause of a possible serotonergic up regulation in CFS; it has taken over a decade just to arrive at a consensus that it probably exists.
The same story plays out regarding cortisol, the most important adrenal hormone. Thirteen years after low cortisol levels were first noted cortisol levels are still being assessed in CFS. While heterogeneous cortisol findings do complicate matters to some degree, this slow progress cannot simply be laid at the feet of a wildly heterogeneous patient population.
Instead it is largely a function of a poorly funded and poorly organized research community. When researchers take a decade or more to assess the levels of one major substance in the body, can CFS patients any confidence that the resolution of their disease is anywhere in sight?
CFS is a complex disease. Understanding it will undoubtedly require venturing out into new ground and piecing together findings in novel ways. A new disease process will most likely need to be explicated. Cortisol and serotonin, however, hardly constitute ‘new ground’.
If it takes so long to simply assess the levels of these substances, how long will it take to investigate the lesser known or still unknown substances or processes that most likely lie at the heart of CFS? If the research community is this poor at assessing the ‘easy’ stuff how in the world will it be able to muster the ability to tackle the more problematic stuff?
Innovation quenched
Benjamin Natelson’s recent travails concerning finding funding for a spinal fluid gene/protein expression study are illustrative of the funding travails that confront CFS researchers. Dr. Natelson has been the most prolific CFS researcher in the world over the past five years and gene and protein expression studies are arguably the two most potentially helpful research field concerning CFS.
They have the potential to fundamentally alter our understanding of CFS. Despite Dr. Natelson’s reputation and the NIH’s recognition of the urgent need to break new ground in this disease it has refused to even partially fund his gene/protein expression CSF study.
This was notwithstanding the fact that Dr. Natelson recently co-authored a study finding abnormal cytokine levels in the spinal fluid of CFS patients, or the fact that he already has the spinal fluid. Perhaps not surprisingly a year after Dr. Natelson was denied funding a proteomics study by another researcher found a potential protein biomarker in the CSF of CFS patients.
One is tempted to ask if this eminent researcher cannot get funding for such a worthwhile project then what chance do lesser known researchers CFS have? The history of CFS research is littered with promising studies that had positive outcomes but received little or no follow up (hypercoagulation, PKR, adenosine levels, G-actin, etc.).
Innovative theories regarding CFS pathophysiology are regularly advanced but are rarely adequately tested. Despite demonstrating tie-ins with several other theories of CFS and being the topic of much discussion, Pall’s nitric oxide/peroxynitrite theory has been the object of only one small study in six years.
This petty pace
The 3000 papers so often cited with regards to CFS research is misleading as only a small portion of those papers actually involve research efforts. Even the small amount of research done on CFS might be sufficient if we had a clear focus on CFS pathophysiology – if we knew what part of the body to zero in on, but we don’t. Research into CFS is spread all over the body. This means, given the small amount of research funding CFS receives, our progress in understanding this disease is doomed to be achingly slow.
The funding is simply not available for research teams to target an area and quickly and exhaustively investigate it. An examination of the CFS research ‘groups’ of the past five years indicates that most are very small groups that are able to produce a study once every year and a half or so.
These groups, always subject to a tenuous funding environment, manage to slowly chip away at their subject of interest over time but given their resources the amount of progress they can make is limited. Stewart, for instance, lists 16 different possible causes of the microcirculatory difficulties found in a subset (low-flow POTS) of a subset of CFS patients.
Similarly Spence and Khan list 9+ items that could be affecting acetylcholinesterase activity in CFS. Given the current pace of CFS research it can take many years for a consensus to form around any positive findings. A research effort that could take a year or two in a well funded disease can easily take ten years or more in CFS.
By under funding CFS research the powers that be have essentially decreed it will move forward at a petty pace. They have decided there are more important things for them to focus on. While researchers scramble for funding CFS patients watch the decades and their lives and dreams dribble away.
Shakespeare’s description of the human condition in Macbeth never resonated more strongly than it does with both CFS researchers and patients who seem, at times, relegated to irrelevance while the great public research institutions entrusted with the nation’s health look away.
“To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time…
Life’s but a walking shadow; a poor player…”
——————————————————————
*The first two papers on CFS in the eighties were
Buchwald D, Sullivan JL, Komaroff AL..Frequency of ‘chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection’ in a general medical practice. JAMA. 1987 May 1;257(17):2303-
Caligiuri M, Murray C, Buchwald D, Levine H, Cheney P, Peterson D, Komaroff AL, Ritz J. Phenotypic and functional deficiency of natural killer cells in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. J Immunol. 1987 Nov 15;139 (10):3306-13.
It’s amazing how quickly what would become an important cadre of researchers and physicians congealed around CFS. Of the authors of the first two papers on CFS Buchwald has co-authored 69 papers on CFS, Komaroff 63, Levine 32 and Peterson 30. Dr. Cheney became one of the most creative CFS clinicians. CFS was not only a defining moment for their patients; it changed the lives of many of the earliest physicians on the scene as well. Several have dedicated their careers to understanding and treating CFS.
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Programación en C
Lenguajes de Programación. Organización lógica datos. Algoritmos. Subalgoritmos. Estructuras dinámicas lineales de datos
• Enviado por: Glistig
• Idioma: castellano
• País: España España
• 25 páginas
publicidad
ORGANIZACIÓN LÓGICA DE DATOS. ESTRUCTURAS ESTATICAS
A. INTRODUCCION
Las estructuras estáticas son conjuntos de datos homogéneos que se trata como una sola unidad. Hay dos tipos de estructuras: internas y externas (en soportes físicos).
Internas: se almacenan en la memoria principal del ordenador, que es la memoria RAM.
Array o tabla o matriz: se utilizan en cualquier lenguaje de programación para almacenar datos que son del mismo tipo o demás.
B. Conceptos y definiciones
1. Tabla o array: consiste en un (conjunto) numero fijo y ordenado de elementos, todos del mismo tipo y bajo un mismo nombre.
2. Componentes: son los elementos que forman el array.
3. Índices: la posición de cada componente dentro del array viene determinado por el índice o índices (uno o varios).
4. Dimensiones: de una tabla o array es el número de índices que se utiliza.
5. Longitud: es el tamaño de la tabla o array, el número de elementos que contiene el array.
6. Tipo de array: el tipo de sus componentes.
Todos los componentes de un array los vamos a utilizar como variables y se va a poder realizar operaciones con los arrays.
Representación grafica de un array:
Alumnos
Array
Jose
Rosa
Luis
Lola
Andres
Maria
Nombre del array: Alumnos.
Componentes: Alumnos(1), Alumnos(2), ......... , Alumnos(7).
Índices: 1
Dimensión:1
Longitud: 7
Tipo de array: Alfanumérico.
C. TIPOS DE ARRAYS
• Unidimensionales
• Bidimensionales
• Multidimensionales
• 1. Unidimensionales: van a tener una sola dirección y por lo tanto un solo índice. Se les llama a este tipo de arrays Vectores.
Si queremos intercambiar el contenido entre dos vectores, vamos a declarar primero una variable auxiliar.
AUX=Alumnos(1)
Alumnos(1)=Alumnos(2)
Alumnos(2)=AUX
SWITCH
Es un campo de memoria que puede tomar dos valores exclusivos (uno u otro) y se utiliza para lo siguiente:
- Recordar en un determinado punto de un programa la ocurrencia o no de un suceso anterior.
- Salir de un bucle.
- Para decidir en una instrucción alternativa que acción realizar.
- Para hacer que dos acciones diferentes se ejecuten alternativamente dentro de un bucle.
a) OPERACIONES CON VECTORES: asignación, lectura/escritura, recorrido y actualización.
• Asignación: es dar un valor a algún elemento del vector. Los vectores son sucesiones ordenadas de elementos. Cuando veamos x[1], x[2], .... , x[n] sabremos que es un vector. En los vectores no es obligatorio empezar desde 1, pueden empezar desde 0, un número negativo o un número positivo distinto de 1.
Tipo
Array[dimensión]tipo de datos: nombre del array
Var
Nombre del array: N (variable que se va a utilizar para cada elemento del array).
• Lectura y escritura:
Leer (A): leer el array entero.
Escribir(A): escribir el array entero.
Leer V(1): leer el elemento 1 del array.
• Recorrido o acceso secuencial al vector: es la operación con la que vamos a realizar una acción general sobre todos los elementos del vector. Dependiendo de la dimensión del array se hace de una manera o de otra. En los bidimensionales se realiza de forma más compleja. Se puede leer del principio a fin o del final al principio.
• Actualización: esta compuesta de tres operaciones: añadir, insertar y borrar.
• Añadir: significa agregar un elemento al final del array. Se trata de una asignación. Esto lo podemos hacer cuando tenemos uno o más elementos al final del array vacíos. Tenemos que fijarnos en la dimensión.
• Insertar: introducir un elemento entre los ya existentes. Tiene que haber elementos vacíos y tenemos que cambiar los que van después del que insertamos.
2. Bidimensionales: Son arrays de dos dimensiones y se les conoce con el nombre de matrices. Tienen 2 índices por lo que cada componente de la matriz se direcciona con el nombre de la matriz seguido de dos índices separados por comas.
Tratamiento secuencial o recorrido de una matriz
El recorrido de una matriz se realiza mediante el anidamiento de dos bucles desde. El bucle externo recorre cada una de las filas y el interno todos los componentes de una fila. Este tratamiento también se puede realizar por columnas en casos en los que nos interese y además en ambos casos en orden creciente y decreciente para las filas y columnas.
3. Arrays MULTIDIMENSIONALES: Son los arrays desde 3 hasta n dimensiones. También se les llama poliedros. Es necesario que los n subíndices estén declarados o identificados, para poder localizar un elemento individual del poliedro. Un array de n dimensiones se puede identificar de la siguiente manera.
A [P1:U1, P2:U2, ...... , PN:UN]
A [I1, I2, ...... , In] (estos I son los índices que nos van a ayudar a localizar un elemento).
Componentes:
P[1,1,1], P[1,1,2]....P[1,1,n]
P[1,2,1], P[1,2,2]....P[1,2,n]
P[1,n,n],.....P[n,n,n].
Índices:
[1......n]
[1......n]
[1......n]
Longitud: N.
Tratamiento secuencial o recorrido de un poliedro
Requiere tantos bucles desde anidados como dimensiones tenga el poliedro. Cada índice de un bucle recorre una dimensión y puede hacerse en cualquier orden de anidamiento.
SUBALGORITMOS O SUBPROGRAMAS: PROCEDIMIENTOS Y FUNCIONES
El método para solucionar un programa complejo es dividirlo en subprogramas que sean sencillos de resolver. Cuando se trabaja de esta manera existirá un algoritmo principal o conductor que transfiera el control a los distintos subalgoritmos, los cuales, cuando terminen su tarea, devolverán el control al algoritmo que los llamo. Existen dos tipos de subprogramas: funciones y procedimientos.
1. FUNCIONES
Una función a partir de uno o más valores llamados argumentos o parámetros devuelve un resultado en el nombre de la función.
Declaración de funciones: una función constaría de:
a) Cabecera: también se le llama definición de la función. En la definición de la función deben figurar una serie de parámetros, llamados parámetros formales para que cuando se llame a la función se pueda establecer una correspondencia 1 a 1 y de izquierda a derecha entre los parámetros actuales y formales.
b) En el cuerpo de la función estarán el bloque de declaraciones y el bloque de instrucciones. Debe incluir una instrucción mediante la cual la función tomaría un valor para devolverlo al programa principal o llamador.
Función < nombre de la función > (lista de parámetros formales): tipo de dato devuelto.
Declaración de las variables locales.
Instrucciones (Inicio).
Los tipos de datos validos como resultado de una función son: ordinales, reales, cadenas, punteros y lógicos.
En una lista de parámetros formales es posible separar estos parámetros con ; y hay que indicar cada tipo.
2. PROCEDIMIENTOS
Un procedimiento es un subprograma o subalgoritmo que realiza una tarea especifica y que puede ser definido mediante 0, 1 o n parámetros.
Tanto la entrada de información al procedimiento como la devolución de resultados desde el procedimiento al programa principal o llamador o conductor se realiza a través de los parámetros. El nombre de un procedimiento no esta asociado a ninguno de los resultados que obtiene. La llamada a un procedimiento se realiza con la instrucción “Llamar_a” o directamente con el nombre del procedimiento, es decir:
<nombre del procedimiento> (lista de parámetros que se llaman actuales o reales).
Declaración de procedimientos: es similar a la de una función excepto que el nombre del procedimiento no se encuentra asociado a ningún resultado.
Procedimiento <nombre del procedimiento>(lista de parámetros formales)
(declaración de variables locales)
Inicio
.
.
.
Fin_procedimiento
La lista de parámetros formales se debe separar por ; y debemos indicar el tipo de cada uno de ellos.
3. VARIABLES LOCALES Y GLOBALES
Las variables utilizadas en los programas principales y en los subprogramas se clasifican en dos tipos: variables locales y variables globales.
• Variables locales: una variable es local si esta declarada y definida dentro de un subprograma y es distinta de las variables que tengan el mismo nombre que hayan sido declaradas en el programa principal.
Cuando otro subprograma utiliza el mismo nombre al declarar una variable ambas serán distintas y tendrán diferentes posiciones de memoria, por lo tanto solo tendrán vigencia en el subprograma donde han sido declaradas. El uso de variables locales tiene la ventaja de hacer a los subprogramas independientes y la comunicación con el programa principal se realizara exclusivamente a través de los parámetros.
• Variables globales: una variable es global cuando el ámbito (SCOPE) en el que dicha variable se conoce es el programa completo y debe haber sido declarada en el programa principal. Tienen la ventaja de compartir información de diferentes subprogramas. Sin una correspondiente entrada en la lista de parámetros.
4. COMUNICACIÓN CON SUBPROGRAMAS: PASO DE
PARÁMETROS
Cuando un programa llama a un subprograma, la información se comunica a través de una lista de parámetros y se establece una correspondencia automática entre los parámetros formales y actuales. Los parámetros actuales son sustituidos o utilizados en lugar de los parámetros formales. La declaración del subprograma se hace:
Procedimiento <nombre>(tipo de dato: dato; tipo de dato: dato; ...) Parámetros formales.
Y la llamada al subprograma se hace con:
Llamar_a <nombre del procedimiento> (valores que va a tomar el procedimiento: )
Existen dos métodos para establecer la correspondencia de parámetros:
• Correspondencia posicional: es la que se utiliza en C. La correspondencia se establece emparejando los parámetros reales y formales, según su posición en las listas. Fi se corresponde con Ai (F: formal, A: actual).
• Correspondencia por el nombre explicito o método de paso de parámetros por el nombre. En este método en las llamadas se indica explícitamente la correspondencia entre los parámetros reales y formales.
• 5. TRANSMISIÓN DE PARÁMETROS
Los métodos de transmisión de parámetros más utilizados son:
• Por valor: el paso de un parámetro por valor significa que el valor del argumento (parámetro actual o real) se asigna al parámetro formal, es decir, antes de que el subprograma comience a ejecutarse el argumento toma un valor especifico. Este valor se copia en el correspondiente parámetro formal dentro del subprograma. Una vez que el procedimiento empieza a ejecutarse, cualquier cambio de valor de uno de los parámetros formales no se refleja en un cambio en el correspondiente argumento (parámetros reales), es decir, que cuando el subprograma termine de ejecutarse el argumento actual (parámetros actuales) tendrá el mismo valor que cuando el subprograma comenzó, independientemente de lo que les haya sucedido a los parámetros formales. A estos parámetros se les llama parámetros valor. Y cuando hagamos la declaración tendremos que hacerlo a través de E (entrada).
• Por referencia: el paso de parámetros por referencia, que se les llama también parámetros variables, significa que la posición o dirección de (no del valor) del argumento o parámetro actual se envía al subprograma, es decir, que si a un parámetro formal se la da el atributo de parámetro por referencia y si el parámetro actual es una variable, entonces un cambio en el parámetro formal se refleja en un cambio en el correspondiente parámetro actual, porque ambos tienen la misma posición de memoria. Para indicar que deseamos transmitir un parámetro por dirección cuando hagamos la declaración de los parámetros, lo haremos a través de E/S o S.
• 6. EFECTOS LATERALES
Las modificaciones que se produzcan mediante una función o procedimiento en los elementos situados fuera del subprograma se llaman efectos laterales. En algunos casos son beneficiosos para la programación pero no es recomendable no utilizarlos.
• Efectos laterales en procedimientos: la comunicación del procedimiento con el resto del programa se tiene que hacer a través de los parámetros. Cualquier otra comunicación entre el procedimiento y el resto del programa son efectos laterales. Estos efectos son perjudiciales en la mayoría de los casos. Si un procedimiento modifica una variable global (distinta de un parámetro actual) esto es un efecto lateral, por ello excepto en contadas ocasiones, no debe aparecer en la declaración del procedimiento. Si se necesita una variable temporal en un procedimiento es mejor utilizar una variable local, que habría que declarar en el procedimiento.
• Si queremos que el programa modifique el valor de una variable global es mejor utilizar un parámetro formal, variable en la declaración del procedimiento, y después usar la variable global como el parámetro actual en una llamada al procedimiento.
En general, se debe seguir la regla de no utilizar ninguna variable global en procedimiento, aunque esto no significa que los procedimientos no puedan manipular variables globales.
En el cuerpo de un procedimiento es mejor utilizar un parámetro formal o una variable local. En los lenguajes donde es posible declarar constantes, se puede utilizar constantes globales ya que no pueden ser modificadas por el procedimiento.
• Efectos laterales en funciones: Una función toma los valores de los argumentos y devuelve un único valor. Sin embargo, al igual que en los procedimientos, una función puede hacer cosas similares a ellos.
• Una función puede tener parámetros variables, además de parámetros valor (no devuelven nada) en una lista de parámetros formales. Una función puede cambiar el contenido de una variable global y ejecutar instrucciones de E/S. Estas operaciones se conocen como parámetros laterales y se deben evitar. Toda la información que se transmite entre procedimientos y funciones debe realizarse (al igual que en los procedimientos) a través de la lista de parámetros y no a través de las variables globales. Esto convertirá al procedimiento o función en módulos independientes que pueden ser comprobados y depurados por si solos, lo que evitara preocuparnos por el resto de las partes del programa.
7. RECURSIVIDAD
Un subprograma puede llamar a cualquier otro subprograma y este a otro y así sucesivamente, que es lo que se llama anidación. Pero también se pueden llamar a si mismos.
• llamar_a A
• --------------------
• Llamar_a B
• Llamar_a A
• Otra función o procedimiento que se puede llamar así mismo se llama recursivo. Es una herramienta muy potente en algunas aplicaciones, sobre todo en calculo, y puede ser utilizada como una alternativa a la repeticion o estructura repetitiva. La escritura de un procedimiento o función recursiva es similar a los procedimientos o funciones normales, sin embargo, para evitar que la recursion continúe indefinidamente es preciso incluir una condición de terminación.
La razón de que existan lenguajes que admitan la recursividad se debe a la existencia de estructuras especificas tipo pilas y memorias dinámicas. Las direcciones de retorno y el estado de cada subprograma se guardan en estructuras tipo pilas.
TEMA 7: ESTRUCTURAS DINAMICAS LINEALES DE DATOS
Hay otro tipo de estructuras que pueden ampliar o limitar su tamaño mientras se ejecuta el programa: estructuras dinámicas
ESTRUCTURAS DINAMICAS
Estas estructuras son generadas mediante un tipo de dato conocido con el nombre de puntero. Una variable de tipo puntero almacena la dirección o posición de otra variable. La principal ventaja que tiene usar este tipo de datos es que se pueden adquirir posiciones de memoria cuando se necesitan y liberarlas cuando ya no se necesitan. De esta manera se pueden crear estructuras dinámicas que se expandan o contraigan según agreguemos o eliminemos elementos. Un puntero es una variable que almacena la posición de una variable dinámica de un tipo determinado y llega a la variable numérica apuntada. El tipo de dato puede ser simple o estructurado y podemos realizar las siguientes operaciones:
• Inicialización:
• Programación en C
• Comparación: p=q, p<>q
• Asignación: p!q
• Creación de variables dinámicas: consiste en reservar un espacio en memoria para la variable dinámica. Reservar (p).
Eliminación de variables dinámicas: consiste en desocupar el espacio en memoria que está siendo utilizado por las variables dinámicas. Liberar (p)
Una variable dinámica es una variable simple o estructurada de datos sin nombre y creada en tiempo de ejecución, por lo tanto, para poder acceder a una variable numérica apuntada como no tiene nombre usaremos "!". Las variables dinámicas pueden intervenir en cualquier operación o expresión para una variable estática de su mismo tipo. Pueden ser de dos tipos: lineales y no lineales.
1. LINEALES
a) LISTAS
Son secuencias de 0 o más elementos de un tipo de datos almacenado en memoria. Son estructuras lineales donde cada elemento de una lista excepto el primero tiene un único predecesor y cada elemento de la lista excepto el ultimo tiene un sucesor. Al número de elementos de una lista se le llama longitud, y decimos que una lista está vacía si tiene 0 elementos. Se pueden añadir nuevos elementos o suprimirlos de cualquier posición.
Tipos de listas lineales:
• Listas contiguas: los elementos son adyacentes en la memoria del ordenador y tienen unos limites (izquierdo y derecho o inferior y superior) que no pueden ser rebasados cuando se añade un nuevo elemento. Se implementan a través de arrays y la inserción o eliminación de un elemento necesitará una traslación por parte de los elementos de la lista, excepto para la cabecera y el final de la lista.
• Listas enlazadas: los elementos se almacenan en posiciones de memoria que no son adyacentes o contiguas, por lo que cada elemento necesita almacenar la posición del siguiente elemento de la lista. Son bastante más flexibles y potentes que las listas contiguas y la inserción o el borrado de un elemento no requiere el desplazamiento de los demás elementos de la lista. Se implementan, normalmente, de forma dinámica, pero si el lenguaje de programación no lo permite se utilizaran arrays, con lo cual tendremos limitaciones en cuanto al número de elementos que pueda contener la lista y además establece una ocupación de memoria constante.
Gráficamente se representa de la siguiente forma:
• Listas circulares: son una modificación de las listas enlazadas en las que el puntero del ultimo elemento apunta al primero de la listas.
Gráficamente se representa de la siguiente forma:
Programación en C
Debemos diseñar un nodo especial llamado nodo cabecera que está permanentemente asociado a la existencia de la lista y cuyo campo para almacenar información no se utiliza. Así, al efectuar un recorrido de la lista, el nodo cabecera nos permitirá detectar cuándo han sido visitados todos los demás nodos.
• Listas doblemente enlazadas: Se pueden recorrer tanto del final al principio como de principio a fin. Cada nodo de las listas de este tipo consta de un campo con información y de otros dos campos que son de tipo puntero y que podríamos denominar anterior y siguiente, uno desde su nodo anterior y otro de su nodo sucesor.
• Listas doblemente encadenadas circulares: en este tipo de listas el campo anterior del primer nodo apunta al ultimo nodo y el campo siguiente del ultimo nodo apunta al primero.
b) PILAS
Son unas estructuras que son más utilizadas siempre que se quieran recuperar una serie de elementos en orden inverso a como se introdujeron.
Tanto la extracción como la inserción de un elemento en la pila se realiza por la parte superior, por lo tanto, el único elemento al que podemos acceder es el ultimo, y como el ultimo elemento que se pone en la pila es el primero que se puede sacar, a estas estructuras dinámicas llamadas pilas se les conoce como LIFO (Last In First Off). Las pilas se deben implementar de forma dinámica utilizando punteros, pero si el lenguaje de programación que estamos utilizando no admite punteros, entonces tendremos que utilizar arrays, y además una variable que normalmente se le da el nombre de `cima' y es la que apunta al último elemento de la pila.
Programación en C
Aplicaciones de las pilas: el uso más común que suele darse a las pilas es cuando hacemos una llamada desde un programa a otro subprograma. Se utiliza las pilas para guardar el lugar desde donde se hizo la llamada y para almacenar el estado de las variables en el momento en que se hace la llamada. También se utilizan en todos los algoritmos recursivos para almacenar el valor de las variables y los parámetros.
c) COLAS
Una cola es también una estructura de datos lineal en donde las eliminaciones se realizan por uno de sus extremos que normalmente se llama frente, y las inserciones se realizan por el otro extremo que normalmente se llama final. A estas estructuras se les llama FIFO (First In First Out).
Se tiene que implementar de forma dinámica usando punteros a menos que el lenguaje que utilicemos lo permita, y entonces tendremos que utilizar arrays.
Representación grafica de colas hechas con arrays.
Programación en C
Programación en C
SOLUCIONES en el caso de que la variable `final' coincida con el máximo del array aunque haya posiciones libres.
• Retroceso: consiste en mantener fijo a 1 el valor de la variable `frente' realizando un desplazamiento de una posición para todos los elementos ocupados cada vez que se produce una eliminación.
• Programación en C
• Reestructuración: la variable `final' llega al máximo de los elementos, los elementos ocupados se deben desplazar hacia atrás, las posiciones que hagan falta para que el principio de la lista coincida con el principio del array, es decir:
• Programación en C
• Mediante un array circular: se considera que el elemento primero sigue al elemento ultimo. Para esta implementación debemos dejar una posición libre que separe el principio y el final de la cola.
• Programación en C
MALLOC
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main ()
{
int i,j,fl,nel=0;
int **ptabla;
printf("\n\t Escribe el numero de nombres \n");
scanf("%i",&fl);
printf("\n\t Escribe el numero de columnas \n");
scanf("%i",&cl);
ptabla=(int**)malloc(fl*sizeof(int));
for (i=0;i<cl;i++)
{
ptabla[i]=(int*)malloc(cl*sizeof(int));
}
for (i=0;i<fl;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<cl;j++)
{
printf("Escribe el elemento \n");
scanf("%i",&ptabla[i][j]);
}
}
for (i=0;i<fl;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<cl;j++)
{
printf("%4i",*(*ptabla)++);
}
printf("\n");
*ptabla-=cl;
ptabla++;
}
ptabla-=fl;
for (i=0;i<fl;i++)
{
free(ptabla[i]);
}
free(ptabla);
}
MALLOC (2ª PARTE)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
crear(int **ptabla,int *cuan)
{
*ptabla=(int *)malloc(sizeof(int)**cuan);
}
rellenar(int *ptabla,int cuan)
{
int i;
for (i=0;i<cuan;i++)
{
printf("\n\t escribe el elemento: ");
scanf("%i",ptabla++);
}
}
listar(int *ptabla,int cuan)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<cuan;i++)
{
printf("\n\t el elemento es: %i",*ptabla++);
}
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
}
ordenar(int *ptabla,int cuan)
{
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
for (i=0;i<cuan;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<cuan-1;j++)
{
if(*ptabla<*(ptabla+1))
{
aux=*ptabla+1;
*(ptabla+1)=*ptabla;
*(ptabla)=aux;
}
ptabla++;
}
ptabla-=cuan;
}
}
}
void main()
{
int opci;
int* ptabla;
int cuantos;
printf("\n\t escribe cuantos elementos \n");
scanf("%i",&cuantos);
do
{
system("clear");
printf("\n\t 1 para crear tabla");
printf("\n\t 2 para rellenar tabla");
printf("\n\t 3 listar tabla");
printf("\n\t 4 para ordenar");
printf("\n\t 5 para salir \n");
scanf("%i",&opci);
switch (opci)
{
case 1:
crear(&ptabla,&cuantos);
break;
case 2:
rellenar(&ptabla,cuantos);
break;
case 3:
listar(&ptabla,cuantos);
break;
case 4:
ordenar(&ptabla,cuantos);
break;
case 5:
free(*ptabla);
exit(0);
}
}while(opci!=5 );
}
ESTRUCTURAS
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union t_variable
{
char autor[15];
int edicion;
};
struct t_biblio
{
int codigo;
char nombre[30];
char tipo;
union t_variable unvariable;
};
void listar(struct t_biblio alma[],int *cant);
void alta(struct t_biblio alma[],int *cant);
void main()
{
struct t_biblio fichas[10];
int cantidad=0,opcion;
do
{
system("clear");
printf("\n\t Escribe lo que quieres hacer 1 listar 2 para dar de alta\n\t ");
printf("\n\t Escribe la opcion \t");
scanf("%i",&opcion);
if (opcion==1)
{
listar(fichas,&cantidad);
}
else
{
alta(fichas,&cantidad);
}
}
while(opcion!=199);
}
void listar(struct t_biblio alma[],int *cant)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<*cant;i++)
{
system("clear");
printf("\n\tnombre: %s ",alma[i].nombre);
printf("\n\tcodigo: %i ",alma[i].codigo);
printf("\n\ttipo: %c ",alma[i].tipo);
if(alma[i].tipo=='l')
{
printf("\n\tautor: %s ",alma[i].unvariable.autor);
}
else
{
printf("\n\tedicion: %i ",alma[i].unvariable.edicion);
}
fflush(stdin);
printf("\n\t pulsa una tecla para continuar");
getchar();
}
}
void alta(struct t_biblio alma[],int *cant)
{
char opci;
system("clear");
printf("\n\tescribe el tipo p(periodicos) l(libros): ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&opci);
switch (opci)
{
case 'p':
printf("\n\tescdribe el nombre: ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(alma[*cant].nombre);
printf("\n\t escribe el codigo : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%i",&alma[*cant].codigo);
printf("\n\t escribe la edicion: ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%i",&alma[*cant].unvariable.edicion);
alma[*cant].tipo='p';
(*cant)++;
break;
case 'l':
printf("\n\t escribe el nombre: ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(alma[*cant].nombre);
printf("\n\t escribe el codigo: ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%i",&alma[*cant].codigo);
printf("\n\t escribe el autor: ");
fflush(stdin);
gets(alma[*cant].unvariable.autor);
alma[*cant].tipo='l';
(*cant)++;
break;
}
}
STRING DINAMICAS
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main ()
{
int i,j,fl,nel=0;
char nombre[50];
char **ptabla;
printf("\n\t Escribe el numero de nombres \n");
scanf("%i",&fl);
ptabla=(char**)malloc(fl*sizeof(char));
for (i=0;i<fl;i++)
{
printf("Escibe el nombre");
gets(nombre);
ptabla[i]=(char*)malloc((strlen(nombre)+1)*sizeof(char));
strcpy(ptabla[i],nombre);
}
for (i=0;i<fl;i++)
printf("%4s\n",*ptabla++);
ptabla-=fl;
for (i=0;i<fl;i++)
{
free(ptabla[i]);
}
free(ptabla);
}
RECURSIVIDAD
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main()
int factorial(int n)
{
res=num*factorial-1;
return(res);
}
{
int num,res;
printf("Escribe el numero");
scanf("%i",&num);
if (num > 1)
{
res=num*factorial(num-1);
}
return res;
printf("resultado es %i",res);
}
MENU
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
void maximo(int datos[],int cantidad)
{
int i,mayor=0;
system("clear");
for (i=0;i<cantidad;i++)
{
if (datos[i]>=mayor)
mayor=datos[i];
}
printf("el mayor es %i \n",mayor);
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
system("clear");
}
void leer(int numeros [],int *cantidad)
{
int i;
char op='n';
system("clear");
while(op!='s')
{
printf("escribe un numero -s- para salir \n");
scanf("%i",&numeros[*cantidad]);
(*cantidad)++;
printf("escribe s para salir \n");
scanf("%s",&op);
}
system("clear");
}
void menor(int numeros [],int cantidad)
{
int i;
long menor=100000;
system("clear");
for (i=0;i<cantidad;i++)
{
if(numeros[i]<=menor)
menor=numeros[i];
}
printf(" el menor es %i \n",menor);
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
system("clear");
}
void ordenar(int numeros [],int cantidad)
{
int i,c,aux;
system("clear");
for(c=0;c<cantidad;c++)
{
for (i=0;i<cantidad-1;i++)
{
if (numeros[i]>numeros[i+1])
{
aux=numeros[i+1];
numeros[i+1]=numeros[i];
numeros[i]=aux;
}
}
}
system("clear");
}
void visualizar(int numeros[],int cantidad)
{
int i;
system("clear");
for(i=0;i<cantidad;i++)
{
printf("\n el elemento %i es %i ",i,numeros[i]);
}
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
system("clear");
}
void anadir(int numeros[],int *cantidad)
{
if(*cantidad<=10)
{
system("clear");
printf(" dime el numero \n");
scanf("%i",&numeros[*cantidad]);
(*cantidad)++;
}
else
{
printf("\n\t no se pueden anadir mas numeros ");
}
}
void eliminar(int numeros[], int *cantidad)
{
int pos,i;
if (*cantidad!=0)
{
printf("dime la posicion que quieres borrar hay %i posiciones",*cantidad);
scanf("%i",&pos);
for(i=pos-1;i<*cantidad-1;i++)
{
numeros[i]=numeros[i+1];
}
(*cantidad)--;
}
else
{
printf("\n\tno hay valores que eliminar");
}
}
void main()
{
int datos[10],cant;
char opci;
system("clear");
do
{
printf(" \n\t pulsa 1 para introducir datos \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 2 para ordenar los datos \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 3 para ver el mayor \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 4 para ver el menor \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 5 para ver los datos \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 6 para anadir \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 7 para eliminar \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 8 para salir \n");
printf(" \n\telige una opcion :");
scanf("%s",&opci);
switch (opci)
{
case '1':
leer(datos,&cant);
break;
case '2':
ordenar(datos,cant);
break;
case '3':
maximo(datos,cant);
break;
case '4':
menor(datos,cant);
break;
case '5':
visualizar(datos,cant);
break;
case '6':
anadir(datos,&cant);
break;
case '7':
eliminar(datos,&cant);
break;
case '8':
exit(0);
default:
continue;
}
}
while(opci>=1||opci<=7);
}
FICHEROS
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
void maximo(int datos[],int cantidad)
{
int i,mayor=0;
system("clear");
for (i=0;i<cantidad;i++)
{
if (datos[i]>=mayor)
mayor=datos[i];
}
printf("el mayor es %i \n",mayor);
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
system("clear");
}
void leer(int numeros [],int *cantidad)
{
int i;
char op='n';
system("clear");
while(op!='s')
{
printf("escribe un numero -s- para salir \n");
scanf("%i",&numeros[*cantidad]);
(*cantidad)++;
printf("escribe s para salir \n");
scanf("%s",&op);
}
system("clear");
}
void menor(int numeros [],int cantidad)
{
int i;
long menor=100000;
system("clear");
for (i=0;i<cantidad;i++)
{
if(numeros[i]<=menor)
menor=numeros[i];
}
printf(" el menor es %i \n",menor);
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
system("clear");
}
void ordenar(int numeros [],int cantidad)
{
int i,c,aux;
system("clear");
for(c=0;c<cantidad;c++)
{
for (i=0;i<cantidad-1;i++)
{
if (numeros[i]>numeros[i+1])
{
aux=numeros[i+1];
numeros[i+1]=numeros[i];
numeros[i]=aux;
}
}
}
system("clear");
}
void visualizar(int numeros[],int cantidad)
{
int i;
system("clear");
for(i=0;i<cantidad;i++)
{
printf("\n el elemento %i es %i ",i,numeros[i]);
}
fflush(stdin);
getchar();
system("clear");
}
void anadir(int numeros[],int *cantidad)
{
if(*cantidad<=10)
{
system("clear");
printf(" dime el numero \n");
scanf("%i",&numeros[*cantidad]);
(*cantidad)++;
}
else
{
printf("\n\t no se pueden anadir mas numeros ");
}
}
void eliminar(int numeros[], int *cantidad)
{
int pos,i;
if (*cantidad!=0)
{
printf("dime la posicion que quieres borrar hay %i posiciones",*cantidad);
scanf("%i",&pos);
for(i=pos-1;i<*cantidad-1;i++)
{
numeros[i]=numeros[i+1];
}
(*cantidad)--;
}
else
{
printf("\n\tno hay valores que eliminar");
}
}
void main()
{
int datos[10],cant;
char opci;
system("clear");
do
{
printf(" \n\t pulsa 1 para introducir datos \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 2 para ordenar los datos \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 3 para ver el mayor \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 4 para ver el menor \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 5 para ver los datos \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 6 para anadir \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 7 para eliminar \n");
printf(" \n\tpulsa 8 para salir \n");
printf(" \n\telige una opcion :");
scanf("%s",&opci);
switch (opci)
{
case '1':
leer(datos,&cant);
break;
case '2':
ordenar(datos,cant);
break;
case '3':
maximo(datos,cant);
break;
case '4':
menor(datos,cant);
break;
case '5':
visualizar(datos,cant);
break;
case '6':
anadir(datos,&cant);
break;
case '7':
eliminar(datos,&cant);
break;
case '8':
exit(0);
default:
continue;
}
}
while(opci>=1||opci<=7);
}
FICHEROS (2ª PARTE)
#include <stdio.h>
struct tdatos{
int nume;
float real;
};
void main(){
struct tdatos dato[10];
FILE *pfich;
pfich=fopen("ficher","w");
dato.nume[0]=1;
dato.real[0]=23.4;
fwrite(&dato,sizeof(dato),1,pfich)
fclose("ficher");
pfich=fopen("ficher","r");
PASAR ARGUMENTOS DE L DE COMANDO
#include <stdio.h>
int main(int c,char* args[])
{
int i;
/* mostrar los argumentos pasados atraves de la linea de comandos */
while (i<c)
{
printf("los argumentos pasados son :%s\n",args[i]);
i++;
}
}
25
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Sign up ×
Programmers Stack Exchange is a question and answer site for professional programmers interested in conceptual questions about software development. It's 100% free.
I am looking at a codebase where a developer never uses SQL transactions i.e. each update/insert into the SQL database is an atomic operation.
I believe the codebase would benefit from transactions. I was looking online today and in one Stackoverflow question an answerer says: "In some situations it is better to have a partial update rather than none at all". Is there any truth in this? I suppose it depends on the problem domain to some extent.
share|improve this question
2
What is it doing? A partial update in finance is likely much worse than none. A partial update to a log file is likely 'ho hum'. – MichaelT Apr 25 '13 at 19:04
There are no Transactions. I was taught that if an operation inserts/updates two or more tables then it should be part of a Transaction. I am wandering if there are scenarios when this statement is false. – w0051977 Apr 25 '13 at 19:06
@MichaelT,it is a high volume website. This article seems to hold true: martinfowler.com/bliki/Transactionless.html – w0051977 Apr 25 '13 at 19:16
1
I have worked on high volume finance web sites, and high volume bug tracking web sites. On the bug tracking, I had auto commit turned on - this was for ease of use more than performance. In finance, it was all transactions that reflected one consistent set of state changes. – MichaelT Apr 25 '13 at 19:20
@MichaelT, thanks +1. Can you post an answer so that I can give credit? – w0051977 Apr 25 '13 at 19:24
2 Answers 2
It depends not just on the problem domain, but also on technical considerations. Basically, it comes down to the simple question: "Will there be unacceptable problems when a partial update happens?" Some examples:
• Transfering money from one account to another. A partial update is completely unacceptable for domain reasons.
• Adding a vote to an online poll and incrementing a result count (which is only for display, with the final result being recalculated from the vote table). A partial update is probably acceptable.
• Adding something to an n:m relationship. A partial update would result in an inconsistent state where you have either an entry that is not connected, or a connection without a matching entry. This is unacceptable for technical reasons - you'd get an error whenever that entry is encountered and it would likely be impossible to fix this error within the system.
• A hardware unit that sends batches of sensor data to be stored. Adding only some of the entries of a batch is probably better than losing all of it.
Honestly, it's really rare for partial updates to be tolerable.
share|improve this answer
Thanks +1. What are your thoughts on this article? martinfowler.com/bliki/Transactionless.html – w0051977 Apr 25 '13 at 19:46
1
@w0051977: The key statement is "You have to pay attention to the order of your commits, getting the more important ones in first. At each commit you have to check that it succeeded and decide what to do if it fails." - that's quite a lot of additional work compared to using transactions, and very error-prone. You're manually doing something very similar to what a DB does when you use transactions. But it's hand-tailored for every single operation, which allows you to do only the minimal work necessary to maintain exactly as much integrity as you need. – Michael Borgwardt Apr 25 '13 at 20:51
From the database perspective, frequent commits are often used to prevent records being unreadable by other sessions as they are locked by the updating session.
However this varies by RDBMS. Oracle has always had an MVCC system that prevented readers from blocking writers and writers from blocking readers, so it is not a problem there for instance.
Over-frequent committing on Oracle is strongly discouraged not only because it can leave partial transactions in the system but also because a COMMIT requires a synchronous redo log buffer flush which stalls the session (a high level of log_file_sync wait events is symptomatic of over-committing). Redo log buffers are asynchronously flushed every few seconds or when they are X% full anyway, so a longer running transaction may have less work to do during an explicit commit if it is deferred until the end of the business transaction anyway.
share|improve this answer
Thanks. I am not sure how this answers my question. Are you saying it is acceptable not to use transactions in high volume websites? What is a high volume website? I understand it to mean a website that is a front end to a database containing lots of records but I am unsure. – w0051977 Apr 26 '13 at 8:56
What I'm saying is that one consideration in deciding whether to commit frequently is the database technology. On some, for example Oracle, frequent commits will be slower. On others frequent commits are required to avoid locking problems. what database is used for the system you are using? – David Aldridge Apr 26 '13 at 9:03
Thanks. The system in question queries multiple systems (using SELECT), but only updates/deletes/inserts from/into one SQL Server database. – w0051977 Apr 26 '13 at 9:14
The use of SQL Server may explain why frequent commits are issued. – David Aldridge Apr 26 '13 at 9:17
Thanks. Could you clarify why it may explain why frequent commits are issued? +1. – w0051977 Apr 26 '13 at 9:47
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CONTROL REMOTO VIA GSM CELULAR 1 canal
Con este dispositivo se controlan lamparas, aparatos eléctricos, ventiladores etc. VIA GSM
Control-gsm
CARACTERISTICAS
El programa Controldtmf se corre en la pc que va a funcionar como servidor
No es necesario instalar solo descomprimir la carpeta,
EL servidor, usa una versión mini de apache ( MAPACHE.exe ) tutoServidor
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Ahora tenemos que configurar el DNS para podernos dirigir desde cualquier lugar en el mundo a nuesta PC tutoDNS
También podemos monitotear la actividad con el programa monitor incluido tutoMonitor
monitoreado-con-webcam
Se puede CONECTAR A PC o laptop para Monitorear y controlar desde Internet
Solo se conecta a la pc a la salida de audífonos
FUNCIONAMIENTO
Se llama al teléfono conectado al sistema,
El telefono contesta ( esta es modo autocontestar )
Se inserta un código y se activa o se desactiva el dispositivo
Ejemplo:
Para activar el aparato presionamos el 0 desde el teléfono remoto
esperamos un tono de confirmación y posteriormente presionamos #
Para desactivar el modulo presionamos 0 y posteriormente *(asterisco)
AL ACTIVAR EL DISPOSITIVO escuchamos un tono que indica que la orden fue efectuada.
Marcamos al telefono remoto
paso-cero
ESTE contesta ( esta en modo autocontestar )
paso-cero-dos
Tecleamos 0 y esperamos la confirmación de recibido, que es un tono
Tecleamos # que es la función de encendido ( * es la función de apagado )
Y activamos el aparato paso-dos Y por ultimo colgamos
paso-tres
CONTENIDO DEL KIT
1 MODULO DE CONTROL
1 MODULO RELEVADOR
1 ELIMINADOR
1 conector macho 3.5 mm para la mayoría de los celulares
NO INCLUYE TELEFONO CELULAR
mini-apache El TXinfraPROnet demo controlGSMnet1canal
Compatible con el el programa controldtmf ( solo podemos controlar 1 aparato ) control-dtmf Registro demoactividad
El programa Controldtmf se corre en la pc que va a funcionar como servidor
No es necesario instalar solo descomprimir la carpeta,
EL servidor, usa una versión mini de apache ( MAPACHE.exe ) tutoServidor
Después abrimos el programa Controldtmf este programa funciona perfectamente como local o por medio de Internet
Ahora tenemos que configurar el DNS para podernos dirigir desde cualquier lugar en el mundo a nuesta PC tutoDNS
También podemos monitotear la actividad con el programa monitor incluido tutoMonitor
monitor-uno
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Autotechiq
issues
Navigation
Hey, Why Is My Radiator Leaking?
If you are short on time and want to fast-track the process to professional help, click Yes
Four common causes for a vehicle Radiator Leaking and their related parts.
The radiator is a component of the engine's cooling system. It is located in the front of the vehicle and uses airflow across the radiator core to transfer the heat developed during engine combustion to the outside air. The system is under pressure to allow the system to operate at higher temperatures to help with complete combustion and minimize vehicle emissions.
Have You Noticed a Leak In Your Vehicle's Radiator?
A radiator leak is commonly caused by a loose/broken radiator cap, damage in the radiator hose, internal chemical electrolysis, or a crack in the tank due to impact or wear. Also, note that a coolant reservoir leak can be commonly mistaken for a radiator leak.
This can result in overheating, engine damage, and unreliable performance. So, it's crucial not to overlook the bad signs and take prompt action. For example, if you notice coolant puddles or a decrease in your vehicle's coolant level, it indicates that the radiator fluid is seeping out. Ignoring these warnings can lead to costly repairs and inconvenience down the road.
Remember, promptly addressing a leaking radiator is an investment in your vehicle's longevity and peace of mind.
Let's Get To The Bottom Of It!
• Q: Do you see a red, yellow, or green crust around the radiator hose ends?
The radiator hoses are like flexible tubes made of rubber. They connect to the radiator and the engine block through firm hose adapters. They carry the coolant from the engine to the radiator and back again. Over time, the rubber hoses can become stiff and fragile because they're made of rubber. Additionally, when the coolant becomes acidic, it gradually weakens the hoses from the inside. If you notice a coolant leak, it may be because the hoses start leaking at the connections between the fittings and the hose itself. You might see a dried, crusty material of a specific color, meaning that the coolant has been leaking.
• Q: Is the engine oil texture resembling a milkshake?
The head gasket is like a seal that connects the engine's head to its block. Its main job is to keep the coolant passages separate from the oil passages and the combustion chamber. However, the coolant can become acidic if the engine gets too hot or the cooling system wears out. This acidity and electrolysis can damage the head gasket and create leaks. As a result, the coolant can enter the cylinder and pass through the piston rings, eventually ending up in the crankcase where the engine oil is stored; this results in a mix of coolant and oil. When this happens, the engine oil looks milky, resembling a dark milkshake.
• Q: Are there pinhole leaks in the radiator?
The coolant must have a certain alkalinity level to stay healthy. However, as time goes by and the coolant gets used, it becomes more acidic. This acidity allows the coolant to conduct electricity. This creates a process called electrolysis, which can damage plastic and aluminum parts in the engine. As a result, these components start to wear out, and small holes, called pinhole leaks, can form.
• Q: Do you notice coolant puddles under your vehicle?
The radiator comprises two tanks on each end of the core. Its purpose is to allow coolant to flow from one tank through the core, into the other tank, and back to the engine. The radiator's core is typically made of aluminum or copper, while the tanks are made of plastic. A rubber seal between the core and the tanks is in place to keep them connected. However, as time passes and the radiator is used, this seal can become weak and brittle, eventually cracking. When this happens, it can lead to a leak underneath the vehicle.
Find Professional Help
Please select your vehicle's brand and location so we can locate the best professional help for you
If you are a shop owner and sick of business directories that are based on the cost of repair, AutoTechIQ is for you. If your customers receive Digital Inspection results then AutoTechIQ is definitely for you. Check out the certification page or how to rank in your area.
Vehicle Health Inspection Proof
Explore the following typical inspection results that show a potential cause for the symptom and select the one you believe is similar to your vehicle's issue.
The coolant reservoir is leaking and causing the low coolant warning light to appear on the dashboard, resulting in engine overheating
The proof image shows the coolant reservoir leaking at the seam, which explains the low coolant level. Therefore, the coolant reservoir must be replaced with a new one to fix the issue.
When the customer brought in their vehicle, they were concerned about the low coolant light popping on the dashboard every morning. The light would turn off after driving for a while, but now it's consistent. The customer also mentioned they hadn't noticed any coolant puddle on the ground.
During a test drive, the technician confirmed that the low coolant light was on. As part of a vehicle health inspection, the technician discovered that the coolant level was low, and there was evidence of coolant underneath the coolant reservoir.
To further investigate, the technician used a coolant pressure system tester. After filling the coolant correctly, they pressurized the system to 12 psi. Unfortunately, the coolant reservoir was leaking at the seams during this test. This leakage was the cause of the low coolant level, and the reservoir will need to be replaced.
Does the issue look like this? if not accessible your shop will document it
The coolant is overflowing the reservoir because the radiator cap is not holding the specified psi to keep coolant healthy
The proof image shows the radiator cap being tested and failing to hold pressure. This explains why the coolant is boiling over and causing the overflow tank to overflow. The technician will replace the faulty radiator cap with a new one to resolve the issue.
When the customer brought in their vehicle, they were worried because the overflow tank in the cooling system was boiling over, even though the engine didn't seem to overheat. They mentioned that they had been adding coolant every morning to keep up with it.
During a test drive, the technician confirmed the coolant overflowing in the overflow reservoir. However, during the initial vehicle health inspection, the technician found no issues related to the customer's concern.
To investigate further, the technician checked the acidity level of the coolant, and it was within the acceptable range. They then used a cooling system pressure checker to look for leaks but found none.
Next, the technician examined the radiator cap and discovered it held less pressure. The radiator cap is supposed to hold up to 12 pounds per square inch (psi), but it was failing and only holding less than 4 psi. Therefore, the radiator cap needs to be replaced.
Does the issue look like this? if not accessible your shop will document it
The radiator is leaking coolant, causing fluid loss, resulting in engine overheating.
The proof image shows the radiator leaking, explaining why a coolant puddle is under the vehicle. This confirms the need for a radiator replacement to resolve the issue.
When the customer dropped off their vehicle, they mentioned noticing a red liquid puddle where they usually park.
During a test drive, the technician encountered no issues related to the customer's concern. However, during a vehicle health inspection, the technician noticed the coolant level was low.
To investigate further, the technician used a cooling system pressure tester. They connected the tester to the same place where the radiator cap goes and increased the pressure to 12 pounds per square inch (PSI), which is the rating of the radiator cap.
The technician discovered the radiator was leaking between the tank and the core through the test. As a result, the radiator will need to be replaced.
Does the issue look like this? if not accessible your shop will document it
Testing the coolant on a tool. The result showsh that the coolant is acidic and needs to be exchanged
The proof image shows the voltage test, demonstrating the need for coolant replacement. In addition, it helps confirm the presence of electrolysis in the coolant. Finally, it supports the technician's recommendation to replace the corroded radiator and perform a cooling system flush to prevent further issues.
When the customer brought in their vehicle, they mentioned noticing coolant on the ground underneath it. They even saw a tiny leak in the radiator that looked like a small hole, as if someone had poked it with a needle.
During a test drive, the technician detected the smell of coolant after driving for a bit. Upon pulling the vehicle into the service bay, they saw coolant coming out of the radiator through a pinhole.
During a vehicle health inspection, the technician discovered the radiator leaking from a pinhole. They also noticed that the coolant level was low. To investigate further, the technician checked the pH level of the coolant. They found that it was highly imbalanced, going beyond the normal range.
In this case, chemical electrolysis might be causing damage from the inside of the radiator and creating the pinhole. So, the technician conducted a test using a digital voltmeter. They placed the positive probe of the voltmeter in the coolant and connected the other end to the negative battery cable.
The results showed a current of 400 millivolts in the coolant, confirming that electrolysis was the cause of the pinhole leak. Therefore, the radiator needs to be replaced. The mechanic used handy tools in this whole process; this is the type of service you should expect regardless if you're servicing a Japanese or American vehicle.
In addition to replacing the radiator, the technician recommends a cooling system flush. This is necessary due to the imbalanced pH level of the existing coolant. Flushing the system and using fresh coolant will significantly reduce the risk of electrolysis and causing future leaks.
Does the issue look like this? if not accessible your shop will document it
The dipstick shows a very brownish milkshake-like oil. This indicates the head gasket is leaking, allowing coolant to mix with engine oil
The proof image provided shows the milkshake-like appearance of the engine oil, indicating the faulty radiator gasket. This is a significant issue that requires further investigation and action to resolve.
When the customer brought in their vehicle, they mentioned it was difficult to start it. Additionally, they had been checking the engine oil and noticed that it looked like a milkshake in color.
During a test drive, the technician observed a puff of white smoke from the exhaust when starting the vehicle. They also noticed that the engine took longer to crank before starting.
The technician performed a vehicle health inspection and found the coolant level low. But unfortunately, they also discovered that the engine oil had coolant mixed into it, resulting in a chocolate milkshake-like appearance.
The technician used a block tester and special testing fluid to investigate the issue further. They replaced the radiator cap with the block tester and started the vehicle. Almost immediately, the testing fluid changed color from blue to yellow. This confirmed that the head gaskets had failed.
Based on these findings, the technician recommends a more extensive engine tear-down to verify the damage's extent. This will help determine whether the head gaskets and the engine can be repaired or if a complete replacement is necessary.
Does the issue look like this? if not accessible your shop will document it
A coolant leak can build up crustic material around the leaking area, like coolant hoses
The proof image provided shows the crusty build-up of dried coolant, confirming the need to replace the radiator hoses. The crusty material is a clear indication of coolant leakage. By replacing these hoses, the technician will address the issue and prevent further leaks in the cooling system.
When the customer brought in their vehicle, they noticed some pink crusty stuff around one of the hoses while checking the engine oil. They described it as similar to the crusty material that forms around battery cable ends, even though the hose is nowhere near the battery.
During a test drive, the technician didn't notice anything about the customer's concern. However, during a vehicle health inspection, the technician observed that the coolant level was low, and the radiator hose had a crusty build-up around the adapter where the feed hose connects from the de-gas bottle.
To investigate further, the technician used a cooling system pressure tester. They connected it to the de-gas bottle and increased the pressure to the maximum limit recommended by the manufacturer, 12 pounds per square inch (PSI).
Through this test, which is also common for DOT inspections, the technician confirmed that the coolant hose was leaking. As a result, they recommend replacing both the upper and lower radiator hoses, as well as both heater hoses.
Does the issue look like this? if not accessible your shop will document it
Typical Fixes to Address the Cause(s)
The following chapters bases themselves on experiences from our auto repair shop; we'll describe related problems' causes and fixes.
"Coolant Reservoir Replacement" fixes "Leaking coolant reservoir"
The AutoTechIQ ranking for Safety, Cost Avoidance, and Environmental Impact is
Safetyi
env level
env level
Cost Avoidancei
env level
env level
Environmental Impacti
env level
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Hey, Why Is My Radiator Leaking?
Sometimes a problem is more challenging to describe than it initially looked like. If you are not sure your problem is described by this article, please find below similar vehicle symptoms, which might describe better the issue you are experiencing.
Other things your auto repair shop might talk about:
Coolant leaking. Internal combustion engine. Losing coolant. leaky radiator valve. water pump.
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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5,438,682,256,301,094,000
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Gas-Phase Oxidation of Reactive Organometallic Ions Anuj Joshi Sofia Donnecke Ori Granot Dongju Shin Scott Collins Irina Paci J Scott McIndoe 10.26434/chemrxiv.11909397.v1 https://chemrxiv.org/articles/Gas-Phase_Oxidation_of_Reactive_Organometallic_Ions/11909397 Analysis of highly reactive compounds at very low concentration in solution using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry requires the use of exhaustively purified solvents. It has generally been assumed that desolvation gas purity needs to be similarly high, and so most chemists working in this space have relied upon high purity gas. However, the increasingly competitiveness of nitrogen generators, which provide gas purity levels that vary inversely with flow rate, prompted an investigation of the effect of gas-phase oxygen on the speciation of ions. For moderately oxygen sensitive species such as phosphines, no gas-phase oxidation was observed. Even the most reactive species studied, the reduced titanium complex [Cp<sub>2</sub>Ti(NCMe)<sub>2</sub>]<sup>+</sup>[ZnCl<sub>3</sub>]<sup>–</sup> and the olefin polymerization precatalyst [Cp<sub>2</sub>Zr(µ-Me)<sub>2</sub>AlMe<sub>2</sub>]<sup>+</sup> [B(C<sub>6</sub>F<sub>5</sub>)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>–</sup>, only exhibited detectable oxidation when they were rendered coordinatively unsaturated through in-source fragmentation. Computational chemistry allowed us to find the most plausible pathways for the observed chemistry in the absence of observed intermediates. The results provide insight into the gas-phase oxidation of reactive species and should assure experimentalists that evidence of significant oxidation is likely a solution rather than a gas-phase process, even when relatively low-purity nitrogen is used for desolvation. 2020-02-28 13:13:52 Oxidation Mass spectrometry electrospray ionization decomposition oxygen olefin polymerization
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How Does SNAP-8 Work, And Does It Deserve Its Status?
How Does SNAP-8 Work, And Does It Deserve Its Status?
The peptide recognised as SNAP-8 is regarded by its scientific title, acetyl glutamyl heptapeptide-1. Its probable software in anti-wrinkle lotions is now becoming investigated. According to scientific tests, the qualities of SNAP 8 make it feasible for it to lessen the visual appearance of wrinkles manufactured by the purely natural getting old system of muscle contractions that occur throughout the day. Animal studies have proven significant consequences on the eyes and brow location. This merchandise is assumed to be a Botulinum Toxin substitute that is fewer harsh, far more charge-successful, and safer than the latter. SNAP 8 performs a perform equivalent to that of botulinum toxin in that it targets the creation of wrinkles, but it does so in a distinctive method.
Effects of the Assessments Conducted on the SNAP 8 Peptide
Researchers carried out a sequence of VIVO assays to verify how little peptides can ensure the SNARE complex’s steadiness. For the reason that of this, the scientists could observe the temperature balance of the reconstituted SNARE protein sophisticated and its generation. This observation assesses the efficacy of peptides intended like SNAP-25 N and their capacity to assemble with synaptobrein and syntaxin as section of the generated SNARE advanced. The final final result was that the short peptides originating from the N-terminal finish of SNP-25 could efficiently contend with the all-natural protein and protect against it from forming the SNARE advanced by modifying its steadiness. Scientists attained this outcome by altering the stability of the primary protein.
The exam members participated in still a different experiment. The cream that experts utilized experienced 10% SNAP 8 in its composition. Silicon impressions were being taken from the spot surrounding the eyes of 17 individuals in the review. Gurus received these impressions on silicon right before the commencing of the exam. The analyze contributors utilised the cream twice day-to-day, and then 28 days later on, researchers collected one more sample. The imprints have been examined applying command laser scanning microscopy to observe the alter in the skin surface area in between the sample attained in advance of remedy and the sample taken immediately after treatment method. Skin topography pictures were being generated to get hold of a three-dimensional standpoint of the samples. Immediately after managing wrinkles for 28 days, researchers found that the depth of the wrinkles experienced considerably diminished, as revealed in these photographs. A most lessen of 63.18 percent was noticed when applying the SNAP 8 solution containing 10 percent.
Operating of the SNAP 8 Peptides
The N-terminal conclude of SNAP-25 has been copied and pasted into SNAP 8. This intricate competes with SNAP-25 for a area inside the SNARE intricate, which then influences the development of the SNARE advanced. It is difficult for the vesicle to release neurotransmitters in a way that is both successful and successful when the SNARE sophisticated is just minimally destabilized. This destabilization lowers muscular contractions, which in change aids to avoid the development of lines and wrinkles. By blocking the production of SNARE complexes and the launch of catecholamine, it will also assistance reduce the physical appearance of great traces and wrinkles that are previously present. It was also demonstrated to inhibit the formation of wrinkles and lines in test participants when employed regularly.
Clinical research have demonstrated that working with SNAP 8 may well help decrease the physical appearance of wrinkles by as considerably as 63.13 percent all-around the eyes. In accordance to the final results of in vitro and in vivo testing, the SNAP-8 activity amount is about 30 p.c better than that of the dad or mum peptide Argireline.
If you want to uncover a trustworthy business that sells reliable products, pay a visit to this website. This company sells a single of the most qualitative and inexpensive peptides presently.
Leave a Reply
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国内首个云上容器ATT&CK攻防矩阵发布，阿里云助力企业容器化安全落地
本文涉及的产品
容器服务 Serverless 版 ACK Serverless，317元额度 多规格
容器镜像服务 ACR，镜像仓库100个 不限时长
简介： 本文对云上容器ATT&CK攻防矩阵做了详细阐述，希望能帮助开发和运维人员了解容器的安全风险和落地安全实践。
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关键字：
Attack Matrix、ATT&CK、云原生、容器化、容器安全、K8S、Docker、阿里云、AK 泄露、恶意镜像、黑客入侵、运行时安全、镜像安全
容器化带来的安全隐患
过去的2019 年是企业容器化爆发的一年。据统计已经有超过 90% 的互联网企业正在部署或使用容器，希望能通过更为敏捷的方式快速响应市场需求。
然而，伴随着容器技术的快速发展，容器安全问题也逐渐成为企业所关注的话题，同时，开发和运维人员缺乏对容器的安全威胁和最佳实践的认识也可能会使业务从一开始就埋下安全隐患。Tripwire的调研显示，60%的受访者所在公司在过去的一年中发生过至少一起容器安全事故。在部署规模超过100个容器的公司中，安全事故的比例上升到了75%，由此可见，快速拥抱容器化带来的安全风险不容忽视。本文对云上容器ATT&CK矩阵做了详细阐述，希望能帮助开发和运维人员了解容器的安全风险和落地安全实践。
一、云上容器ATT&CK攻防矩阵概览
ATT＆CK®框架（Reference ATTACK Matrix for Container on Cloud）是网络攻击中涉及的已知策略和技术的知识库。为便于企业构建容器化应用安全体系，阿里云在传统主机安全的基础上，围绕自建容器集群以及云原生容器服务场景，通过全面分析黑客攻击Docker和K8s的过程和手段，推出容器安全ATT&CK攻防矩阵，让黑客无所遁形，助力企业全面提升容器安全能力水位。
1.png
二、云上容器ATT&CK攻防矩阵详解
1. Initial Access/初始访问
1.1 云账号AK泄露
云平台安全是云服务(容器服务、VM服务)的基础，如果业务代码需要通过AccessKey的方式进行鉴权并与云服务通信，应至少为每个云服务创建子账号并赋予需要的最小权限，同时推荐使用云平台提供的角色（如阿里云RAM角色）进行认证和授权。在实践中我们发现，存在部分管理员在进行代码托管时，使用主账号AK(拥有全部云资源控制权限)并不慎将其泄露到公开仓库（如Github），进而导致其云服务遭受入侵的场景，针对这一风险点，需要企业在使用云原生服务及容器化应用的过程中时刻关注。
1.2 使用恶意镜像
部分容器开发者会使用公开的镜像源(如dockerhub)下载镜像并在业务环境中运行，但如果不慎使用了存在漏洞的镜像，会给业务带来安全风险。此外，攻击者时常会将恶意镜像部署到dockerhub，并通过诱导安装或链路劫持对企业进行供应链攻击。
示例：一个在Dockerhub中伪装成mysql的恶意镜像，同时携带了挖矿程序：
2挖矿程序.png
1.3 K8s API Server未授权访问
K8s API Server作为K8s集群的管理入口，通常使用8080和6443端口，其中8080端口无需认证，6443端口需要认证且有TLS保护。
如果开发者使用8080端口，并将其暴露在公网上，攻击者就可以通过该端口API，直接对集群下发指令，或访问/ui进入K8s集群管理dashboard，操作K8s实施破坏。
1.4 K8s configfile泄露
K8s configfile作为k8s集群的管理凭证，其中包含有关K8s集群的详细信息，包括它们API Server的地址和登录凭证。在购买托管容器服务时，云厂商会向用户提供该文件以便于用户可以通过kubectl对集群进行管理。如果攻击者能够访问到此文件（如办公网员工机器入侵、泄露到Github的代码等），就可以直接通过API Server接管K8s集群，带来风险隐患。
示例：阿里云容器服务K8s configfile：
3configfile.png
1.5 Docker daemon公网暴露
Docker以client-server模式工作，其中docker daemon服务在后台运行，负责管理容器的创建、运行和停止操作，并提供docker许多其他运行时功能。执行docker命令会调用一个客户端，该客户端通过Docker的REST API将命令发送到服务端(docker daemon)。
在Linux主机上，docker daemon监听它在/var/run/docker.sock中创建的unix socket。为了使docker daemon可管理，可以通过配置TCP socket将其暴露在网络中，一般情况下2375端口用于未认证的HTTP通信，2376用于可信的HTTPS通信。
如果管理员测试业务时配置不当导致docker.sock通过2375暴露在公网，攻击者即可通过该API接管docker服务。
示例：Docker daemon的2375端口的暴露：
docker daemon -H tcp://0.0.0.0:2375 -H unix:///var/run/docker.sock
1.6 容器内应用漏洞入侵
同主机安全一样，容器中运行的应用侧漏洞（如WEB应用RCE漏洞、Redis未授权访问等）也会成为黑客的突破口，攻击者可以利用这些漏洞进入容器内部并发起进一步攻击。
1.7 Master节点SSH登录凭证泄露
常见的容器集群管理方式是通过登录Master节点或运维跳板机，然后再通过kubectl命令工具来控制k8s。在此情况下，前置节点的SSH凭证泄露或被攻破也会使K8s集群暴露在风险中。
4风险中.png
1.8 私有镜像库暴露
在容器化应用场景中，公司使用镜像来进行持续集成和自动化部署，这些镜像往往通过专用的私有镜像库来管理。暴露在公网的私有镜像库极有可能遭受攻击者入侵，并通过劫持供应链来渗透下游业务。
以Harbor为例，Harbor是一个用于存储和分发Docker镜像的企业级Registry开源服务器，集成了Docker Hub、Docker Registry、谷歌容器等。它提供了一个简单的GUI，允许用户根据自己的权限下载、上传和扫描镜像。在过去的数年里，Harbor逐渐受到人们的关注并成为CNCF的孵化项目，被企业广泛应用。Harbor在2019年披露了一个严重漏洞CVE-2019-16097，该漏洞允许攻击者通过发送恶意请求以管理员权限创建用户，从而接管Harbor。该漏洞利用方式简单，对暴露在公网的Harbor服务构成较大威胁。
2. Execution/执行
2.1 通过kubectl进入容器
Kubectl是一个管理k8s集群的命令行工具，kubectl在$HOME/.kube目录中寻找一个名为config的文件并连接API Server进行鉴权操作。攻击者可以通过kubectl exec指令在任意pod内部执行命令。
示例：kubectl exec进入pod内部执行指令：
xy@x-8 ~/D/t/K8s_demo> kubectl get pod
NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE
app-1-wp-0 1/1 Running 0 182d
app-1-wp-1 1/1 Running 0 182d
myapp 1/1 Running 0 11d
myappnew 1/1 Running 0 11d
xy@x-8 ~/D/t/K8s_demo> kubectl exec -it myappnew /bin/bash
root@myappnew:/# whoami
root
2.2 创建后门容器
攻击者可通过拥有pods权限的用户创建基础镜像并利用其执行后续渗透操作。
示例：通过yaml文件创建pod，并将pod的根目录/挂载到容器/mnt目录下，操作宿主机文件：
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> cat mymaster.yaml
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: myappnew
spec:
containers:
- image: nginx
name: container
volumeMounts:
- mountPath: /mnt
name: test-volume
volumes:
- name: test-volume
hostPath:
path: /
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> kubectl create -f ~/Desktop/test/mymaster.yaml
pod/myappnew created
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> kubectl exec -it myappnew /bin/bash
root@myappnew:/# cd /mnt
root@myappnew:/mnt# ls
bin checkapp etc lib lost+found mnt proc run srv tmp var
boot dev home lib64 media opt root sbin sys usr
2.3 通过K8s控制器部署后门容器
Kubernetes中运行了一系列控制器(Controllers)来确保集群的当前状态与期望状态保持一致。例如，ReplicaSet控制器负责维护集群中运行的Pod数量；Node控制器负责监控节点的状态，并在节点出现故障时及时做出响应。
攻击者在拥有controllers权限情况下可以通过ReplicaSet/DaemonSet/Deplyment创建并维持后门容器。
示例：攻击者通过controllers攻击：
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> cat nginx-deploy.yaml
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
name: nginx-deployment
labels:
app: nginx-test
spec:
replicas: 1
selector:
matchLabels:
app: nginx
template:
metadata:
labels:
app: nginx
spec:
containers:
- image: nginx
name: container
volumeMounts:
- mountPath: /mnt
name: test-volume
volumes:
- name: test-volume
hostPath:
path: /
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> kubectl apply -f nginx-deploy.yaml
deployment.apps/nginx-deployment created
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> kubectl get pods
NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE
app-1-wp-0 1/1 Running 0 183d
app-1-wp-1 1/1 Running 0 183d
myapp 1/1 Running 0 12d
myappnew 1/1 Running 0 38m
nginx-deployment-b676778d6-lcz4p 1/1 Running 0 55s
2.4 利用Service Account连接API Server执行指令
Kubernetes区分用户和服务(Service Account)两种账户，其中用户账户便于管理员与集群交互，服务账号用于Pod进程调用Kubernetes API或其他外部服务。
K8s pod中默认携带服务账户的访问凭证，如果被入侵的pod存在高权限的用户，则容器中可以直接通过service account向K8s下发指令。
示例：service account在容器内部的默认路径：
cd /var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount
示例：带凭证访问API server的方式：
curl -voa -s https://192.168.0.234:6443/version
# 以下命令相当于 kubectl get no
curl -s https://192.168.0.234:6443/api/v1/nodes?watch --header "Authorization: Bearer eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IiJ9.eyJpc3MiOiJrdWJlcm5ldGVzL3NlcnZpY2VhY2NvdW50Iiwia3ViZXJuZXRlcy5pby9zZXJ2aWNlYWNjb3VudC9uYW1lc3BhY2UiOiJkZWZhdWx0Iiwia3ViZXJuZXRlcy5pby9zZXJ2aWNlYWNjb3VudC9zZWNyZXQubmFtZSI6ImRlZmF1bHQtdG9rZW4tOGprZmQiLCJrdWJlcm5ldGVzLmlvL3NlcnZpY2VhY2NvdW50L3NlcnZpY2UtYWNjb3VudC5uYW1lIjoiZGVmYXVsdCIsImt1YmVybmV0ZXMuaW8vc2VydmljZWFjY291bnQvc2DydmljZS1hY2NvdW50LnVpZCI6Ijg4Y2ZmNmYzLWY0NzktMTFlOS1iZmY1LTJlYzU3MmZlMWRjOCIsInN1YiI6InN5c3RlbTpzZXJ2aWNlYWNjb3VudDpkZWZhdWx0OmRlZmF1bHQifQ.OU740qNcSf0Z__vAO1XJWUw9fvNNI2e4LxHypkpzREmnqrK9UZ-rrp9tG8Vxbc65FlPFj9efdpfWYExxjDDQwQTi-5Afmk4EA6EH-4vEs4V1r4gb0za8cyPVSAjzmEh7uIMgQHVo7y32V_BqUd8cmBoTdgnTY8Nx2QvMClvoYvEWvDKhbMnQjWH1x5Z6jK0iNg7btlK_WXnz8-yU2a0-jgoZFZ8D_qX16mZJ_ZoxEwPNTeNR8pP1l3ebZGVqBQA1PIFVG4HOlYomZya_DWGleMRYpulnECtBOTYyswzCwN8qJUVsdv6yWH1blWHKzYrkcoDmp2r6QhekaG1KFoX_YA" --cacert ca.crt
2.5 带有SSH服务的容器
含有SSH服务的容器暴露了新的攻击面，由于暴力破解或者登录凭证泄露，攻击者可以进入到容器内部执行指令进行恶意操作。这种情况多见于自建容器或K8s环境(一些运维人员将容器当做VM使用)。此外当攻击者逃逸到node节点时可以通过添加账号或写入/.ssh/authorized_keys等方式利用SSH下发后续恶意指令。
2.6 通过云厂商CloudShell下发指令
针对VM和容器服务的管理，云服务商往往会提供沙箱化的便捷管理工具，在云账号凭证泄露的情况下，攻击者可以通过云厂商提供的API接管集群。此外云厂商沙箱本身的安全问题也会影响到用户集群安全。
示例：通过Cloud Shell管理集群：
5管理集群.png
3. Persistence/持久化
3.1 部署远控客户端
（参考2.3部分通过K8s控制器部署后门容器）攻击者通过K8s DaemonSet向每个Node中植入后门容器，这些容器可以设置为特权容器并通过挂载宿主机的文件空间来进一步向每个Node植入二进制并远控客户端，从而完成Node层持久化，且后续操作不会触发K8s层的审计策略。
3.2 通过挂载目录向宿主机写入文件
一种常见的容器逃逸方法，如果容器/Pod启动时将VM的核心目录以写权限挂载(如/root, /proc, /etc等)，则攻击者进入容器后可以修改敏感文件进行逃逸，如利用/etc/crontab执行定时任务、修改/root/.ssh/authorized_keys获取SSH登录权限、读取其他进程空间内容等。
示例：不安全的目录挂载：
docker run -it -v /root:/root ubuntu /bin/bash
写入SSH凭证
(echo -e "\n\n";cat id_rsa_new.pub) >> /root/.ssh/authorized_keys
3.3 K8s cronjob持久化
Cronjob是K8s controller的一种，用于创建基于时间的调度任务(类似主机的/etc/crontab)。攻击者在获取controller create权限后可以创建cronjob实现持久化。
示例：cronjob持久化
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> cat cronjob.yaml
apiVersion: batch/v1beta1
kind: CronJob
metadata:
name: echotest
spec:
schedule: "*/1 * * * *"
jobTemplate:
spec:
template:
spec:
containers:
- name: container
image: nginx
args:
- /bin/sh
- -c
- echo test
restartPolicy: OnFailure
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> kubectl create -f cronjob.yaml
cronjob.batch/echotest created
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> kubectl get cronjobs
NAME SCHEDULE SUSPEND ACTIVE LAST SCHEDULE AGE
echotest */1 * * * * False 3 26s 3m8s
3.4 在私有镜像库的镜像中植入后门
（参考1.8私有镜像库暴露）攻击者在接管企业私有镜像库之后，可以进行拉取私有镜像窃取信息、删除仓库中的镜像、替换仓库中的镜像、为已有镜像添加后门、在镜像服务中创建后门账号等恶意操作。
一种持久化攻击方式是在dockerfile中加入额外的恶意指令层来执行恶意代码，同时该方法可以自动化并具有通用性。同时在Docker镜像的分层存储中，每一层的变化都将以文件的形式保留在image内部，一种更为隐蔽的持久化方式是直接编辑原始镜像的文件层，将镜像中原始的可执行文件或链接库文件替换为精心构造的后门文件之后再次打包成新的镜像，从而实现在正常情况下无行为，仅在特定场景下触发的持久化工具。
3.5 修改核心组件访问权限
攻击者通过ConfigMap修改Kubelet使其关闭认证并允许匿名访问，或暴露API Server的未授权HTTP接口，使其在后续渗透过程中拥有持续的后门命令通道。
4. Privilege Escalation/权限提升
4.1 利用特权容器逃逸
Docker允许特权容器访问宿主机上的所有设备，同时修改AppArmor或SELinux的配置，使特权容器拥有与那些直接运行在宿主机上的进程几乎相同的访问权限。在这种情况下，攻击者从特权容器逃逸是极其容易实现的。
示例：将系统盘挂载到容器内部，读写宿主机文件：
root@d000b330717d:/# fdisk -l
Disk /dev/vda: 40 GiB, 42949672960 bytes, 83886080 sectors
Units: sectors of 1 * 512 = 512 bytes
Sector size (logical/physical): 512 bytes / 512 bytes
I/O size (minimum/optimal): 512 bytes / 512 bytes
Disklabel type: dos
Disk identifier: 0xe2eb87fa
Device Boot Start End Sectors Size Id Type
/dev/vda1 * 2048 83886046 83883999 40G 83 Linux
root@d000b330717d:/# mkdir /mnt1
root@d000b330717d:/# mount /dev/vda1 /mnt1
root@d000b330717d:/# cd /mnt1
root@d000b330717d:/mnt1# ls
bin etc initrd.img.old lost+found opt run sys var
boot home lib media proc sbin tmp vmlinuz
dev initrd.img lib64 mnt root srv usr vmlinuz.old
4.2 K8s Rolebinding添加用户权限
K8s使用基于角色的访问控制(RBAC)来进行操作鉴权，允许管理员通过 Kubernetes API 动态配置策略。某些情况下运维人员为了操作便利，会对普通用户授予cluster-admin的角色，攻击者如果收集到该用户登录凭证后，可直接以最高权限接管K8s集群。少数情况下，攻击者可以先获取角色绑定(RoleBinding)权限，并将其他用户添加cluster-admin或其他高权限角色来完成提权。
4.3 利用挂载目录逃逸
参考（3.2通过挂载目录向宿主机写入文件），攻击者在容器内部可以利用挂载通道修改宿主机文件来实现逃逸。
4.4 利用操作系统内核漏洞逃逸
操作系统内核安全（如Linux内核）是容器安全体系的基石，是实现容器隔离设计的前提。内核漏洞的利用往往从用户空间非法进入内核空间开始，在内核空间赋予当前或其他进程高权限以完成提权操作。在云原生场景中，云厂商会在VM层为操作系统内核漏洞进行补丁修复，避免用户被已公开的内核漏洞攻击。
4.5 利用Docker漏洞逃逸
Docker软件历史上出现过多个高危安全漏洞，目前仍有一定影响的是两个2019年的漏洞：Docker runc RCE(CVE-2019-5736)和Docker cp RCE(CVE-2019-14271)。两个漏洞均利用了Docker本身的功能设计缺陷，利用覆盖容器内部runc文件、libnss库，从而实现从容器到宿主机的逃逸行为。从攻击者角度来看，这两个漏洞均需要与宿主机交互才会触发payload执行，实战中并不高效，但Docker既要隔离又要通信的机制设计或许会在未来暴露出更多问题。在云服务商提供的托管K8s集群以及Serverless服务中，Docker服务自身安全性会由云服务商维护，相比自建，安全性会更有保障。
4.6 利用K8s漏洞进行提权
容器化基础设施每一环的软件漏洞都会带来安全风险。Kubernetes特权升级漏洞(CVE-2018-1002105)允许普通用户在一定前提下提升至K8s API Server的最高权限。该漏洞需要用户拥有对某个namespace下pod的操作权限，同时需要client到API Server和kubelet的网络通路来实施攻击。同样，该漏洞在云服务中已经被服务商修复，在自建的K8s集群中仍有发挥空间。
4.7 容器内访问docker.sock逃逸
当docker.sock被挂载到容器内部时，攻击者可以在容器内部访问该socket，管理docker daemon。
docker -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock
此时容器内部可以与docker deamon通信，并另起一个高权限的恶意容器，从而拿到root shell。
示例：与docker deamon通信：
find / -name docker.sock
curl --unix-socket /var/run/docker.sock http://127.0.0.1/containers/json
4.8 利用Linux Capabilities逃逸
容器即隔离，容器在设计上使用cgroup、namespace等对宿主机的资源进行隔离及调度使用，同时也支持使用Linux capabilities做细粒度的权限管控。从这一角度来看，不安全的权限分配会为容器逃逸提供通路。
示例：K8s YAML配置中对capabilities的支持：
securityContext:
capabilities:
drop:
- ALL
add:
- NET_BIND_SERVICE
docker会以白名单方式赋予容器运行所需的capabilities权限，我们可以在docker run命令中使用 --cap-add 以及 --cap-drop 参数控制capabilities。以下命令对容器开放了宿主机的进程空间，同时赋予容器CAP_SYS_PTRACE权限，此时攻击者在容器内部可以注入宿主机进程从而实现逃逸。
docker run -it --pid=host --cap-add=CAP_SYS_PTRACE ubuntu
5. Defense Evasion/防御逃逸
5.1 容器及宿主机日志清理
攻击者在获得一定权限之后，可以擦除容器内部及宿主机的系统日志以及服务日志，为企业的入侵事件复盘以及溯源增加难度。目前容器运行时安全解决方案中均采用实时的日志采集、自保护方案以及日志采集异常的预警，来解决日志恶意擦除导致的溯源问题。同时，在云原生的容器攻防战场中，恶意卸载安全产品agent以切断日志采集能力也逐渐成为了常见的攻击方式。
5.2 K8s Audit日志清理
Kubernetes Audit功能提供了与安全相关的按时间顺序排列的记录集，记录单个用户、管理员或系统其他组件影响系统的活动顺序。日志提供了包括事件、时间、用户、作用对象、发起者、执行结果等详细信息，为运行时安全审计提供便利。攻击者可以通过清理本地日志文件(用户/服务商可自定义位置)以及切断服务商/安全产品的日志上传通道(卸载agent或者阻断网络通路)来隐藏对K8s集群的操作，一些容器安全产品通过K8s AuditSink功能将日志导出到外部审计，也可通过修改K8s配置进行开启或关闭。
示例：阿里云容器服务Kubernetes Audit审计中心：
6审计中心.png
5.3 利用系统Pod伪装
K8s在部署时会在kube-system namespace中内置一些常见的功能性pod。在云厂商提供的容器服务中，集群还会默认携带一些云服务的组件(如日志采集、性能监控的agent)。攻击者可以利用常见的K8s内置pod作为后门容器，或将后门代码植入这些pod来实现隐蔽的持久化。
示例：阿里云托管版K8s服务内置pod：
xy@x-8 ~/D/test> kubectl get deployments --namespace=kube-system
NAME READY UP-TO-DATE AVAILABLE AGE
alibaba-log-controller 1/1 1 1 183d
alicloud-application-controller 1/1 1 1 183d
alicloud-disk-controller 1/1 1 1 183d
alicloud-monitor-controller 1/1 1 1 183d
aliyun-acr-credential-helper 1/1 1 1 183d
coredns 2/2 2 2 183d
metrics-server 1/1 1 1 183d
nginx-ingress-controller 2/2 2 2 183d
tiller-deploy 1/1 1 1 183d
5.4 通过代理或匿名网络访问K8s API Server
利用代理或匿名网络执行攻击是常见的反溯源行为，在K8s Audit日志中记录了每个行为发起者的源IP，通过公网访问API Server的IP将会被记录并触发异常检测和威胁情报的预警。
示例：K8s Audit日志对pod exec行为的记录：
7行为的记录.png
5.5 清理安全产品Agent
目前主流容器运行时的安全产品部署方式有两种：平行容器模式和主机agent模式。前者创建安全容器采集pod、K8s集群日志以及实现网络代理；后者在VM层对容器层的进程网络文件进行采集。攻击者在获取到集群管理权限或逃逸到宿主机时，可以通过清理掉安全产品植入的探针，破坏日志完整性，使后续攻击行为无法被审计工具发现。在这一过程中，安全容器或主机agent异常离线往往会触发保护性告警。
5.6 创建影子API Server
攻击者可以复制原生API Server的配置，修改关键参数（例如关闭认证，允许匿名访问，使用HTTP请求），再使用这些修改过的参数创建Pods。攻击者可以通过这个影子API Server直接获取etcd内存储的内容，使后续渗透行为在审计日志中匿名。
5.7 创建超长annotations使K8s Audit日志解析失败
一般情况下云厂商/安全产品会使用自身日志服务的agent对K8s Audit日志进行采集和解析，以便于与后续审计规则结合。在入侵检测中，日志的采集-存储-计算的过程会受限于agent的性能占用、Server端日志服务以及其他云产品/开源组件对存储和计算的限制，过长的字段将有可能触发截断，导致敏感信息无法经过审计规则从而绕过入侵检测，K8s API请求中允许携带1.5MiB的数据，但在Google StackDriver日志服务仅允许解析256KB的内容，这将导致Audit日志中的敏感信息(如创建Pod时的磁盘挂载配置项)绕过审计。
示例：通过无意义的超长annotations攻击日志分析链路：
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: annotations-bypass
annotations:
useless-key: useless-value(1 MiB)
...
6. Credential Access/窃取凭证
6.1 K8s Secret泄露
K8s使用Secret对象对access key、密码、OAuth token和ssh key等敏感信息进行统一管理。pod定义时可以引用secret对象以便在运行时访问。攻击者可以通过pod内部service account或更高权限用户来获取这些secret内容，从中窃取其他服务的通信凭证。
示例：查看并下载K8s secret保存的凭据：
xy@x-8 ~> kubectl get secrets --namespace=kube-system
NAME TYPE DATA AGE
admin-token-ltbcr kubernetes.io/service-account-token 3 184d
alibaba-log-controller-token-9kv4m kubernetes.io/service-account-token 3 184d
aliyun-acr-credential-helper-token-vwmlw kubernetes.io/service-account-token 3 184d
attachdetach-controller-token-l5bfh kubernetes.io/service-account-token 3 184d
bootstrap-signer-token-qbrx7 kubernetes.io/service-account-token 3 184d
bootstrap-token-509e2b bootstrap.kubernetes.io/token 6 184d
certificate-controller-token-dgpjn kubernetes.io/service-account-token 3 184d
cloud-node-controller-token-647sw kubernetes.io/service-account-token 3 184d
...
xy@x-8 ~> kubectl get secret alibaba-log-controller-token-9kv4m --namespace=kube-system -o yaml
6.2 云产品AK泄露
云原生的应用部署流程中会涉及到各种云产品的API通信，当某应用被攻破后，攻击者可以通过K8s secret或者挂载到本地的凭证文件来获取相关服务的AK并进行横向移动。一种常见的场景是：入侵WEB应用后获取云存储(OSS)、云数据库(RDS)、日志服务的通信凭证，并进一步窃取数据。
示例：关于云产品AK的扫描规则已被工具化：
8工具化.png
6.3 K8s Service Account凭证泄露
此类场景多见于办公网运维PC、跳板机以及通过SSH管理的master节点上。黑客在攻破此类服务器时，可以检查本地是否存在kubectl鉴权所需的配置文件(一般在$HOME/.kube/config)，该文件通常包含了登录K8s集群的全部信息。
6.4 应用层API凭证泄露
在复杂业务场景以及微服务架构中，K8s各个服务之间、容器与VM之间会通过API方式进行通信，窃取其通信凭证可用于横向渗透。
6.5 利用K8s准入控制器窃取信息
K8s准入控制器(Admission Controller)用于hook客户端对API Server的请求。其中变更(mutating)控制器可以修改被其接受的对象；验证(validating)控制器可以审计并判断是否允许该请求通过。准入控制器是可以串联的，在请求到达API Server之前，如有任何一个控制器拒绝了该请求，则整个请求将立即被拒绝，并向终端用户返回一个错误。
为了便于用户部署自己的准入服务，K8s提供了动态准入控制(Admission Webhook)功能，即用于接收准入请求并对其进行处理的HTTP回调机制。
一种利用动态准入控制实现持久化的方式：攻击者在获取cluster-admin权限后，可以创建恶意的准入控制器hook掉所有的API访问，引用攻击者的外部webhook作为validating服务，这样k8s就会将携带敏感信息的API请求发送到攻击者所用服务器。
示例：利用准入控制器后门，使用通配符hook全部操作，使用failurePolicy和timeoutSeconds参数做到用户侧无感，从而实现隐蔽的数据窃取(如：K8s secret创建时发送到API的AK信息)。
apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration
...
webhooks:
- name: my-webhook.example.com
failurePolicy: Ignore
timeoutSeconds: 2
rules:
- apiGroups: ["*"]
apiVersions: ["*"]
operations: ["*"]
resources: ["*/*"]
scope: "*"
...
7. Discovery/探测
7.1 访问K8s API Server
（参考2.4利用Service Account连接API Server执行指令）攻击者进入pod之后，可以通过curl或wget等http客户端，或使用编译好的报文构造工具，直接访问K8s REST API，当service account具有高权限时可以直接下发命令进行横向移动。而当用户具有低权限时，也可能通过API Server探测到集群内部的资源信息、运行状态以及secret，有利于寻找下一个突破点。
7.2 访问Kubelet API
在kubernetes集群中，每个Node节点都会启动Kubelet进程，用来处理Master节点下发到本节点的任务，管理Pod和其中的容器。包括10250端口的认证API、10255端口的只读API以及10256端口的健康检查API。
其中10255端口可以无需授权进行只读访问，攻击者可以访问/pods获取到node、pod地址以及pod的挂载情况、环境变量等敏感信息，辅助还原业务场景和集群网络拓扑，以寻找后续攻击点。
关于Kubelet API官方并未提供文档，更多接口可在Kubelet源码中挖掘。一些有用的路径：
http://{node_ip}:10255/pods
http://{node_ip}:10255/spec
10250的端口当前版本中默认需要认证，但在老版本的K8s集群中或在用户权限(system:anonymous)被错误配置的情况下，可以尝试直接通过10250端口下发指令。
示例：命令下发：
root@myappnew:/# curl --insecure https://192.168.0.237:10250/pods
Unauthorized
9CIDR.png
7.3 Cluster内网扫描
黑客通常会对Node、Pod、Service三个网段进行主机存活探测和端口扫描，然后从K8s内置服务、用户应用、第三方K8s插件等角度寻找更多攻击面，同时会通过找到Node IP并访问Kubelet API获取pod的详细拓扑信息。
阿里云容器服务默认CIDR：
7.4 访问K8s Dashboard所在的Pod
Kubernetes Dashboard为用户提供WEB界面，便于创建、修改和管理Kubernetes资源(如 Deployment，Job，DaemonSet等)。Dashboard的部署取决于云厂商和用户自身的配置，在官方的部署流程中，dashboard会创建独立的Namespace、Service、Role以及ServiceAccount。
示例：阿里云容器服务提供的dashboard：
10dashboard.png
由于K8s pod之间默认允许通信，攻击者在进入某个pod之后，可以通过信息收集或内网扫描的方式发现K8s dashboard所在service地址，并通过kubernetes-dashboard service account进行认证操作。
7.5 访问私有镜像库
参考1.8和3.4关于私有镜像库的攻击面，攻击者可以在K8s secret或本地配置文件中找到私有镜像库的连接方式，并在权限允许的情况下劫持私有镜像库中的镜像，实现横向移动和持久化。
7.6 访问云厂商服务接口
（参考6.2云产品AK泄漏）在云原生的容器化应用中，服务往往会与多种内外部API进行交互，攻击者可以通过收集这些API的登录凭据或测试是否存在未授权访问来进行攻击准备。
此外，在某些云服务商提供的CaaS或Serverless容器中，为便于使用者与底层云基础设施进行通信，厂商通过植入专用pod或者将API挂载到业务pod的方式提供额外的接口，这些接口也会成为攻击者收集信息过程中的突破口。
7.7 通过NodePort访问Service
K8s service的暴露方式由三种：ClusterIP，NodePort和LoadBalancer。其中LoadBalancer多与云厂商的负载均衡类产品集成，具有较强的流量审计能力。
一些业务场景中存在着K8s与VM并存的内网环境，当攻击者通过非容器化的弱点进入内网时，可以借助NodePort进行横向移动。在频繁迭代的业务中，使用NodePort的服务相比ClusterIP更加固定，可用做控制通道来穿透网络边界管控以及防火墙的限制。
默认情况下，K8s集群NodePort分配的端口范围为：30000-32767。
8. Lateral Movement/横向移动
8.1 窃取凭证攻击云服务
（参考6.2云产品AK泄漏）攻击者利用容器内部文件或K8s secret中窃取到的云服务通信凭证进行横向移动。
8.2 窃取凭证攻击其他应用
参考第6节的各项内容。在基础设施高度容器化的场景中，绝大部分服务都是API化的，这使凭证窃取成为扩展攻击面、获取目标数据的重要手段。K8s集群、云产品以及自建应用的通信凭证都是攻击者窃取的目标。
8.3 通过Service Account访问K8s API
（参考2.4利用Service Account连接API Server执行指令）攻击者在容器内部可通过Service Account访问K8s API刺探当前pod用户权限，并在权限允许的前提下对API下发指令或利用K8s提权漏洞访问集群中的其他资源。
8.4 Cluster内网渗透
一般情况下，K8s会默认允许Cluster内部的pod与service之间直接通信，这构成了一个"大内网"环境。攻击者在突破一个pod之后，可以通过内网扫描收集服务信息并通过应用漏洞、弱口令以及未授权访问等方式渗透Cluster的其他资源。K8s支持通过自带的网络策略(NetworkPolicy)来定义pod的通信规则，一些网络侧插件、容器安全产品也支持东西向的通信审计与管控。
8.5 通过挂载目录逃逸到宿主机
（参考3.2通过挂载目录向宿主机写入文件）攻击者可以利用挂载到容器内部的目录完成从pod到node的移动。
8.6 访问K8s Dashboard
（参考7.4访问K8s Dashboard所在的Pod）攻击者在进入某个pod之后，可以通过信息收集或内网扫描的方式发现K8s dashboard所在service地址，并在管理员权限配置失当的情况下通过K8s Dashboard下发指令。
8.7 攻击第三方K8s插件
为了快速上手，很多K8s快速入门指南都会介绍一些好用的插件和配置方案，但教程的创建者很少考虑到真实生产业务中的安全问题，而这些插件往往在初始的几个版本中存在鉴权方面的漏洞(如API默认允许未授权访问)，直到被攻击者反复测试之后才会逐渐稳定可靠。这些不安全的配置以及使用的第三方K8s插件/工具会引入新的攻击面，并为横向移动提供便利。
示例：常见的利用第三方组件进行横向移动的过程：
攻击者进入pod后，通过未授权访问或漏洞攻击第三方组件，并利用这些组件的权限操纵K8s集群。
11K8s集群.png
9. Impact/影响
9.1 破坏系统及数据
以破坏为目的的攻击者可能会停止或禁用系统上的服务、删除某些核心文件及数据以使合法用户无法使用这些服务。停止关键服务可能会抑制防御方对事件的响应，并有利于攻击者的最终目标。
9.2 劫持资源
常见于攻击者通过自动化脚本入侵并植入挖矿程序进行获利。
9.3 DoS
攻击者会发起DoS攻击，影响系统的可用性。容器化场景中的DoS攻击包括对业务层、K8s API层的攻击以及对Pod资源的抢占。
9.4 加密勒索
在传统主机安全场景中，有经验的攻击者会找到企业核心数据并对其进行加密勒索。由于容器场景的资源弹性较大，且后端数据的产生、存储、销毁链路往往通过云服务API实现，而非在用户磁盘上进行，企业可以通过云原生的快照与备份服务来实现资产备份，避免核心数据丢失。
三、阿里云容器安全解决方案
阿里云容器服务（ACK）提供高性能可伸缩的容器应用管理服务，支持企业级Kubernetes容器化应用的生命周期管理。阿里云容器镜像服务（ACR）是云原生时代的重要基础设施之一，支撑阿里巴巴经济体容器镜像托管，分钟级分发万节点。自2015年起，先后服务了数千家企业，托管了数 PB容器镜像数据，支撑月均镜像拉取数亿次。
为了帮助云上客户更好的做好容器安全建设，阿里云重点关注容器构建、容器部署和容器运行三大生命周期阶段，结合容器ATT&CK攻防矩阵，提供自动化的容器安全检测和响应能力；同时联合阿里云原生容器安全服务，共同面向客户推出云上容器安全一体化方案，助力企业容器化进程。
借助云安全中心，阿里云可以为客户提供自动化的安全编排与响应能力，全面提升容器安全易用性；同时为容器镜像提供漏洞扫描和修复，并支持整合在容器构建流程中，避免部署存在风险的容器；对于运行时的容器被植入 Webshell、挖矿病毒等场景，自动化将隔离恶意样本，并通过联动云防火墙，针对存在漏洞的容器，提供虚拟补丁的能力，缓解安全风险。
四、写在最后
理解容器ATT&CK攻防矩阵是构建容器安全能力的第一步，除了上述涉及的能力和措施外，阿里云安全团队建议用户在实施容器化过程中需要遵循以下几点安全规范，从不同角度缓解容器化带来的风险：
1、在应用生命周期中关注您的镜像，容器，主机，容器管理平台以及相关云服务的安全性，了解潜在风险以及如何保护整体容器环境的运行免受危害。
2、收集并妥善保管K8s集群、第三方CI组件以及云服务的API通信凭证，避免因人工误操作导致的AK泄露。
3、由于容器应用生态涉及到的中间件较多，系统管理者需要关注这些中间件的漏洞披露情况并及时做好脆弱性管理和补丁升级工作。
最后，针对上述容器ATT&CK攻防矩阵，阿里云推出容器安全运行检测清单，企业可以根据下图中所展示的内容检测自己的容器安全水位，以便及时发现问题及时修复。
12检测清单.jpg
作者：徐越（乐枕） 阿里云容器安全专家
内容致谢： 陈吴栋（自朴） 阿里云高级产品经理、魏俊欣（艾格） 阿里云高级安全专家、邱戈川（了哥） 阿里云高级技术专家、杜航（达丁） 阿里云容器解决方案架构师
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POCUS to Diagnosis Gastric Content
Gastric byte
Diagnostic Accuracy of Point-of-Care Gastric Ultrasound
Anesthesia and Analgesia April 2018 - Pubmed Link
Take Home Points
1. Gastric POCUS appears highly accurate in determining full stomach in healthy volunteers.
2. Unclear how well this translates into determining aspiration risk in other patients.
Background
Ultrasound the stomach?! Why? That is certainly a reasonable question to ask before moving forward. The reason is that sometimes, unlike Las Vegas, what happens in the stomach does not stay in there. It can, on occasion, be regurgitated onto your shoes, your face, or - of most concern to the patient, into the airway. Having a full stomach increases the chance that there is going to be aspiration during anesthesia. Therefore, it has been posited in the past that a gastric ultrasound could help indicate the risk for aspiration during airway control. Why can’t you just count on patient’s being NPO? Three reasons 1) Sometimes its an emergency 2) Sometimes stomachs are full despite fasting and 3) Sometimes patients lie. This has particular relevance to anesthesiologists, but also can apply to anyone who does procedural sedation or intubation procedures.
Question
Can point of care gastric ultrasound accurately identify or rule out a full stomach in healthy volunteers?
Population
Authors from Canada
Healthy volunteers recruited
Inclusion:
• 18-85 years old
• ASA physical status I-II (normal or mild systemic disease)
• Height > 145 cm
• Ability to understand study protocol
Exclusion:
• Pregnancy
• Gastric or lower esophageal surgery
• Known abnormalities in upper GI tract (hiatal hernias, gastric tumors)
• Diabetes
• Renal or hepatic impairment
• Neurologic disorders
Design
Prospective, randomized, single blinded study
Intervention
Study subjects fasted for at least 8 hours (no solids or liquids)
US performed to confirm empty stomach at baseline
Randomized into 2 groups
Group 1: remained fasted
Group 2: ingested either 250 mL apple juice or solid meal (muffin + coffee with cream)
3 minutes after ingestion, index gastric ultrasound performed
Content identified as one of 3 categories:
• Nothing
• Clear fluid
• Solid
After 24 hours, same people randomized a second time into one of the 2 groups
Process repeated
Who did the ultrasounds?
Staff anesthesiologist with >100 gastric examinations, blinded to group allocation
The Scan
Low frequency curvilinear transducer, abdominal settings
Curvi
Standardized protocol in supine and right lateral decubitus
Step 1: Transducer in epigastrium in sagittal plane. Transverse view of antrum identified between liver (anteriorly) and pancreas and aorta (posteriorly). Repeat in right lateral decubitus.
• Empty = antrum collapsed, no content seen
• Clear fluid = hypoechoic/anechoic homogenous content
• Solid = hyperechoic or mixed echogenicity
Step 2: If clear fluid visualized, patient placed in right lateral decubitus and a cross-sectional area of the gastric antrum was measured (at the level of the aorta) to estimate the volume.
• Volume = 27 + 14.6 x CSA - 1.28 x age (this was validated by endoscopically guided gastric suctioning)
• Fun idea: Try having a friend drink an unknown quantity of liquid. Measure the stomach to see how accurate this equation is
Key Point:
Considered positive for full stomach if A) Solid content or B) >1.5 mL/kg of clear fluid
Considered inconclusive if could not image gastric antrum in both uspine and RLD positions or if there was uncertainty.
GastricUltrasound.org - Everything you wanted to know and more
Ultrasound Podcast on Gastric ultrasound Part 1 and Part 2
Results
The Patients
Screened 42 but 2 of them found to have full stomach at baseline
N = 40 → 80 sessions
• 19 males
• Mean age 37
• Mean weight 69 kg
• Mean height 168 cm
• Mean BMI 24 kg/m2
Primary Outcomes
Accuracy of POCUS for diagnosis full stomach:
Sensitivity 100% (CI 0.925-1)
Specificity 97.5% (CI 0.95-1)
+LR 40
-LR 0
All patients who ingested solids were true positives (14.3% only had high volume of fluid, no solid matter identified)
All patients who ingested juice were true positives (94.7% of patients had high volume of fluid, a single patient was thought to have solid content)
There was only one incorrect exam - this was a false positive (fasting patient called as full stomach).
There were no inconclusive studies.
No adverse events.
Limitations
Healthy, really healthy volunteers - couldn’t even have diabetes or a hiatal hernia. Couldn’t even be short! May not represent your population. We don't know how well this would work in any sick population or a population with potentially impaired gastric motility.
The sonographic appearance may be different with different amounts of food. In this study, just a single muffin with coffee was examined. What if eating a steak doesn't show up as well?
Each individuals used more than once. Really this is still only 40 unique patients, just reproducing it a second time.
Discussion
Authors note some important aspects of gastric ultrasound. Air in the antrum can cause an artifact seen at anterior wall that could resemble solid material. Need to measure the antral area in the right lateral decubitus. Measuring of the antrum should be between peristaltic contractions and include the full thickness of the gastric wall.
So if we accept that ultrasound can accurately predict if the stomach is filled, the next question to ask yourself is if this will change anything. What do you do with the knowledge that the stomach is full? If pre-op, delay case? If emergent, place NG? Authors suggest only changing management if pre-test uncertainty.
Take Home Points
1. Gastric POCUS appears highly accurate in determining full stomach in healthy volunteers.
2. Unclear how well this translates into determining aspiration risk in other patients.
Our score
3 Probes
Cite this post as
Michael Prats, MD. POCUS to Diagnosis Gastric Content. Ultrasound G.E.L. Podcast Blog. Published on May 07, 2018. Accessed on March 31, 2020. Available at https://www.ultrasoundgel.org/46.
Published on 05/07/18 06:00 AM
comments (5)
By Anonymous on 05/07/18 05:29 PM
Great synopsis -many thanks. On reading around, one issue is that no-one quite agrees on what ml/kg number constitutes signficant contents.....1.5ml/kg is only one of the many cutoffs.
By Anonymous on 05/08/18 02:33 PM
Why was the one fasting patient called a false positive for a full stomach? Doesn’t this actually tell us that for whatever reason they had delayed gastric emptying?
By Mike Prats on 05/10/18 08:58 AM
Thanks for the comments. Regarding the first comment - I agree that there needs to be a consensus about the correct gastric volume that constitutes a significant risk of aspiration. It would be hard to perform this study because we would need to follow subjects with varying gastric volumes to see if there is difference in aspiration events. It is important to figure this out because there may be different accuracy of ultrasound depending on the volume you choose. However, the alternative, and what this group has done, is to just pick a volume and see how that works when you use it. To the second comment - another great point! The problem is that we don't know if the ultrasound was positive because there was significant content in the stomach or if there was some other reason that made it positive. This study was attempting to determine the accuracy of ultrasound as a diagnostic modality, therefore - we can't assume on the basis of our intuition, that if the ultrasound visualizes content, it represents a full stomach. The reason that this was called a false positive is because the patient had no content visualized at their baseline ultrasound (before the randomization to fasting or ingestion), but afterwards, had some content visualized.
By Anonymous on 05/14/18 12:34 AM
forget juice......needs to be redone with 1-fasting, 2-beer, 3-pizza and beer...sorry i couldn't resist AND was it really juice?? I imagine the healthy volunteers might have included residents..
By Mike Prats on 05/14/18 08:20 AM
Good point - probably could redo the study many times to assess for different patient populations and their choice combinations of stomach contents!
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1. 22 May, 2001 1 commit
• Michael Natterer's avatar
libgimp/.cvsignore libgimp/Makefile.am libgimp/gimp.h removed · 1cd6fcc1
Michael Natterer authored
2001-05-22 Michael Natterer <[email protected]>
* libgimp/.cvsignore
* libgimp/Makefile.am
* libgimp/gimp.h
* libgimp/gimpfeatures.h.in: removed gimpfeatures.h
* libgimpbase/.cvsignore
* libgimpbase/Makefile.am
* libgimpbase/gimpbase.h
* libgimpbase/gimpbasetypes.h
* libgimpbase/gimpversion.h.in: and added it as gimpversion.h
* configure.in: changed accordingly.
* app/app_procs.c
* app/main.c
* app/gui/about-dialog.c
* app/gui/splash.c
* app/pdb/misc_cmds.c
* tools/pdbgen/pdb/misc.pdb: fixed includes.
* plug-ins/bmp/bmpread.c
* plug-ins/bmp/bmpwrite.c
* plug-ins/common/gif.c
* plug-ins/common/gifload.c
* plug-ins/common/jpeg.c
* plug-ins/common/newsprint.c
* plug-ins/common/ps.c
* plug-ins/common/tiff.c
* plug-ins/gdyntext/gdyntextcompat.h
* plug-ins/gimpressionist/gimpressionist.c
* plug-ins/perl/Gimp.xs
* plug-ins/perl/Gimp/Lib.xs
* plug-ins/pygimp/gimpmodule.c
* tools/gimp-remote.c: removed all #ifdef GIMP_HAVE_BLAH
conditionals as they are broken anyway since we changed all
plug-ins with perl scripts shortly before 1.2. Also, refering to
intermediate unstable releases is evil.
1cd6fcc1
2. 26 Aug, 2000 1 commit
3. 15 Jul, 1998 1 commit
4. 09 Jan, 1998 1 commit
5. 27 Nov, 1997 1 commit
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{
"red_pajama_v2": {
"ccnet_original_length": 1661,
"ccnet_original_nlines": 47,
"rps_doc_curly_bracket": 0,
"rps_doc_ldnoobw_words": 0,
"rps_doc_lorem_ipsum": 0,
"rps_doc_stop_word_fraction": 0.12727272510528564,
"rps_doc_ut1_blacklist": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_all_caps_words": 0.002597399987280369,
"rps_doc_frac_lines_end_with_ellipsis": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_no_alph_words": 0.48571428656578064,
"rps_doc_frac_unique_words": 0.8135592937469482,
"rps_doc_mean_word_length": 8.822033882141113,
"rps_doc_num_sentences": 49,
"rps_doc_symbol_to_word_ratio": 0.002597399987280369,
"rps_doc_unigram_entropy": 4.4497857093811035,
"rps_doc_word_count": 118,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_dupe_10grams": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_dupe_5grams": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_dupe_6grams": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_dupe_7grams": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_dupe_8grams": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_dupe_9grams": 0,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_top_2gram": 0.033621519804000854,
"rps_doc_frac_chars_top_3gram": 0.0864553302526474,
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"rps_doc_books_importance": -204.26123046875,
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{
"free_decimal_correspondence": {
"primary": {
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"labels": {
"level_1": "General works, books and libraries, information sciences",
"level_2": "",
"level_3": "Computer programming"
}
},
"secondary": {
"code": "005.452",
"labels": {
"level_1": "General works, books and libraries, information sciences",
"level_2": "",
"level_3": "Computer programming"
}
}
},
"bloom_cognitive_process": {
"primary": {
"code": "2",
"label": "Understand"
},
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"code": "3",
"label": "Apply"
}
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"label": "Reference/Encyclopedic/Educational"
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基于webpack搭建前端工程解决方案探索
本篇主要介绍webpack的基本原理以及基于webpack搭建纯静态页面型前端项目工程化解决方案的思路。
下篇（还没写完）探讨下对于Node.js作为后端的项目工程化、模块化、前后端共享代码、自动化部署的做法。
关于webpack的更多用法和前端工程的讨论，可以到github https://github.com/chemdemo/chemdemo.github.io/issues/10
关于前端工程
下面是百科关于“软件工程”的名词解释：
软件工程是一门研究用工程化方法构建和维护有效的、实用的和高质量的软件的学科。
其中，工程化是方法，是将软件研发的各个链路串接起来的工具。
对于软件“工程化”，个人以为至少应当有如下特点：
• 有IDE的支持，负责初始化工程、工程结构组织、debug、编译、打包等工作
• 有固定或者约定的工程结构，规定软件所依赖的不同类别的资源的存放路径甚至代码的写法等
• 软件依赖的资源可能来自软件开发者，也有可能是第三方，工程化需要集成对资源的获取、打包、发布、版本管理等能力
• 和其他系统的集成，如CI系统、运维系统、监控系统等
广泛意义上讲，前端也属于软件工程的范畴。
但前端没有Eclipse、Visual Studio等为特定语言量身打造的IDE。因为前端不需要编译，即改即生效，在开发和调试时足够方便，只需要打开个浏览器即可完成，所以前端一般不会扯到“工程”这个概念。
在很长一段时间里，前端很简单，比如下面简单的几行代码就能够成一个可运行前端应用：
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>webapp</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="app.css">
</head>
<body>
<h1>app title</h1>
<script src="app.js"></script>
</body>
</html>
但随着webapp的复杂程度不断在增加，前端也在变得很庞大和复杂，按照传统的开发方式会让前端失控：代码庞大难以维护、性能优化难做、开发成本变高。
感谢Node.js，使得JavaScript这门前端的主力语言突破了浏览器环境的限制可以独立运行在OS之上，这让JavaScript拥有了文件IO、网络IO的能力，前端可以根据需要任意定制研发辅助工具。
一时间出现了以Grunt、Gulp为代表的一批前端构建工具，“前端工程”这个概念逐渐被强调和重视。但是由于前端的复杂性和特殊性，前端工程化一直很难做，构建工具有太多局限性。
诚如 张云龙@fouber 所言：
前端是一种特殊的GUI软件，它有两个特殊性：一是前端由三种编程语言组成，二是前端代码在用户端运行时增量安装。
html、css和js的配合才能保证webapp的运行，增量安装是按需加载的需要。开发完成后输出三种以上不同格式的静态资源，静态资源之间有可能存在互相依赖关系，最终构成一个复杂的资源依赖树（甚至网）。
所以，前端工程，最起码需要解决以下问题：
• 提供开发所需的一整套运行环境，这和IDE作用类似
• 资源管理，包括资源获取、依赖处理、实时更新、按需加载、公共模块管理等
• 打通研发链路的各个环节，debug、mock、proxy、test、build、deploy等
其中，资源管理是前端最需要也是最难做的一个环节。
注：个人以为，与前端工程化对应的另一个重要的领域是前端组件化，前者属于工具，解决研发效率问题，后者属于前端生态，解决代码复用的问题，本篇对于后者不做深入。
在此以开发一个多页面型webapp为例，给出上面所提出的问题的解决方案。
前端开发环境搭建
主要目录结构
- webapp/ # webapp根目录
- src/ # 开发目录
+ css/ # css资源目录
+ img/ # webapp图片资源目录
- js/ # webapp js&jsx资源目录
- components/ # 标准组件存放目录
- foo/ # 组件foo
+ css/ # 组件foo的样式
+ js/ # 组件foo的逻辑
+ tmpl/ # 组件foo的模板
index.js # 组件foo的入口
+ bar/ # 组件bar
+ lib/ # 第三方纯js库
... # 根据项目需要任意添加的代码目录
+ tmpl/ # webapp前端模板资源目录
a.html # webapp入口文件a
b.html # webapp入口文件b
- assets/ # 编译输出目录，即发布目录
+ js/ # 编译输出的js目录
+ img/ # 编译输出的图片目录
+ css/ # 编译输出的css目录
a.html # 编译输出的入口a
b.html # 编译处理后的入口b
+ mock/ # 假数据目录
app.js # 本地server入口
routes.js # 本地路由配置
webpack.config.js # webpack配置文件
gulpfile.js # gulp任务配置
package.json # 项目配置
README.md # 项目说明
这是个经典的前端项目目录结构，项目目结构在一定程度上约定了开发规范。业务开发的同学只需关注src目录即可，开发时尽可能最小化模块粒度，这是异步加载的需要。assets是整个工程的产出，无需关注里边的内容是什么，至于怎么打包和解决资源依赖的，往下看。
本地开发环境
我们使用开源web框架搭建一个webserver，便于本地开发和调试，以及灵活地处理前端路由，以koa为例，主要代码如下：
// app.js
var http = require('http');
var koa = require('koa');
var serve = require('koa-static');
var app = koa();
var debug = process.env.NODE_ENV !== 'production';
// 开发环境和生产环境对应不同的目录
var viewDir = debug ? 'src' : 'assets';
// 处理静态资源和入口文件
app.use(serve(path.resolve(__dirname, viewDir), {
maxage: 0
}));
app = http.createServer(app.callback());
app.listen(3005, '0.0.0.0', function() {
console.log('app listen success.');
});
运行node app启动本地server，浏览器输入http://localhost:3005/a.html即可看到页面内容，最基本的环境就算搭建完成。
如果只是处理静态资源请求，可以有很多的替代方案，如Fiddler替换文件、本地起Nginx服务器等等。搭建一个Web服务器，个性化地定制开发环境用于提升开发效率，如处理动态请求、dnsproxy（多用于解决移动端配置host的问题）等，总之local webserver拥有无限的可能。
定制动态请求
我们的local server是localhost域，在ajax请求时为了突破前端同源策略的限制，本地server需支持代理其他域下的api的功能，即proxy。同时还要支持对未完成的api进行mock的功能。
// app.js
var router = require('koa-router')();
var routes = require('./routes');
routes(router, app);
app.use(router.routes());
// routes.js
var proxy = require('koa-proxy');
var list = require('./mock/list');
module.exports = function(router, app) {
// mock api
// 可以根据需要任意定制接口的返回
router.get('/api/list', function*() {
var query = this.query || {};
var offset = query.offset || 0;
var limit = query.limit || 10;
var diff = limit - list.length;
if(diff <= 0) {
this.body = {code: 0, data: list.slice(0, limit)};
} else {
var arr = list.slice(0, list.length);
var i = 0;
while(diff--) arr.push(arr[i++]);
this.body = {code: 0, data: arr};
}
});
// proxy api
router.get('/api/foo/bar', proxy({url: 'http://foo.bar.com'}));
}
webpack资源管理
资源的获取
ECMAScript 6之前，前端的模块化一直没有统一的标准，仅前端包管理系统就有好几个。所以任何一个库实现的loader都不得不去兼容基于多种模块化标准开发的模块。
webpack同时提供了对CommonJS、AMD和ES6模块化标准的支持，对于非前三种标准开发的模块，webpack提供了shimming modules的功能。
受Node.js的影响，越来越多的前端开发者开始采用CommonJS作为模块开发标准，npm已经逐渐成为前端模块的托管平台，这大大降低了前后端模块复用的难度。
在webpack配置项里，可以把node_modules路径添加到resolve search root列表里边，这样就可以直接load npm模块了：
// webpack.config.js
resolve: {
root: [process.cwd() + '/src', process.cwd() + '/node_modules'],
alias: {},
extensions: ['', '.js', '.css', '.scss', '.ejs', '.png', '.jpg']
},
$ npm install jquery react --save
// page-x.js
import $ from 'jquery';
import React from 'react';
资源引用
根据webpack的设计理念，所有资源都是“模块”，webpack内部实现了一套资源加载机制，这与Requirejs、Sea.js、Browserify等实现有所不同，除了借助插件体系加载不同类型的资源文件之外，webpack还对输出结果提供了非常精细的控制能力，开发者只需要根据需要调整参数即可：
// webpack.config.js
// webpack loaders的配置示例
...
loaders: [
{
test: /\.(jpe?g|png|gif|svg)$/i,
loaders: [
'image?{bypassOnDebug: true, progressive:true, \
optimizationLevel: 3, pngquant:{quality: "65-80"}}',
'url?limit=10000&name=img/[hash:8].[name].[ext]',
]
},
{
test: /\.(woff|eot|ttf)$/i,
loader: 'url?limit=10000&name=fonts/[hash:8].[name].[ext]'
},
{test: /\.(tpl|ejs)$/, loader: 'ejs'},
{test: /\.js$/, loader: 'jsx'},
{test: /\.css$/, loader: 'style!css'},
{test: /\.scss$/, loader: 'style!css!scss'},
]
...
简单解释下上面的代码，test项表示匹配的资源类型，loaderloaders项表示用来加载这种类型的资源的loader，loader的使用可以参考using loaders，更多的loader可以参考list of loaders
对于开发者来说，使用loader很简单，最好先配置好特定类型的资源对应的loaders，在业务代码直接使用webpack提供的require（source path）接口即可：
// a.js
// 加载css资源
require('../css/a.css');
// 加载其他js资源
var foo = require('./widgets/foo');
var bar = require('./widgets/bar');
// 加载图片资源
var loadingImg = require('../img/loading.png');
var img = document.createElement('img');
img.src = loadingImg;
注意，require()还支持在资源path前面指定loader，即require(![loaders list]![source path])形式：
require("!style!css!less!bootstrap/less/bootstrap.less");
// “bootstrap.less”这个资源会先被"less-loader"处理，
// 其结果又会被"css-loader"处理，接着是"style-loader"
// 可类比pipe操作
require()时指定的loader会覆盖配置文件里对应的loader配置项。
资源依赖处理
通过loader机制，可以不需要做额外的转换即可加载浏览器不直接支持的资源类型，如.scss.less.json.ejs等。
但是对于css、js和图片，采用webpack加载和直接采用标签引用加载，有何不同呢？
运行webpack的打包命令，可以得到a.js的输出的结果：
webpackJsonp([0], {
/***/0:
/***/function(module, exports, __webpack_require__) {
__webpack_require__(6);
var foo = __webpack_require__(25);
var bar = __webpack_require__(26);
var loadingImg = __webpack_require__(24);
var img = document.createElement('img');
img.src = loadingImg;
},
/***/6:
/***/function(module, exports, __webpack_require__) {
...
},
/***/7:
/***/function(module, exports, __webpack_require__) {
...
},
/***/24:
/***/function(module, exports) {
...
},
/***/25:
/***/function(module, exports) {
...
},
/***/26:
/***/function(module, exports) {
...
}
});
从输出结果可以看到，webpack内部实现了一个全局的webpackJsonp()用于加载处理后的资源，并且webpack把资源进行重新编号，每一个资源成为一个模块，对应一个id，后边是模块的内部实现，而这些操作都是webpack内部处理的，使用者无需关心内部细节甚至输出结果。
上面的输出代码，因篇幅限制删除了其他模块的内部实现细节，完整的输出请看a.out.js，来看看图片的输出：
/***/24:
/***/function(module, exports) {
module.exports = "data:image/png;base64,...";
/***/
}
注意到图片资源的loader配置：
{
test: /\.(jpe?g|png|gif|svg)$/i,
loaders: [
'image?...',
'url?limit=10000&name=img/[hash:8].[name].[ext]',
]
}
意思是，图片资源在加载时先压缩，然后当内容size小于~10KB时，会自动转成base64的方式内嵌进去，这样可以减少一个HTTP的请求。当图片大于10KB时，则会在img/下生成压缩后的图片，命名是[hash:8].[name].[ext]的形式。hash:8的意思是取图片内容hashsum值的前8位，这样做能够保证引用的是图片资源的最新修改版本，保证浏览器端能够即时更新。
对于css文件，默认情况下webpack会把css content内嵌到js里边，运行时会使用style标签内联。如果希望将css使用link标签引入，可以使用ExtractTextPlugin插件进行提取。
资源的编译输出
webpack的三个概念：模块（module）、入口文件（entry）、分块（chunk）。
其中，module指各种资源文件，如js、css、图片、svg、scss、less等等，一切资源皆被当做模块。
webpack编译输出的文件包括以下2种：
• entry：入口，可以是一个或者多个资源合并而成，由html通过script标签引入
• chunk：被entry所依赖的额外的代码块，同样可以包含一个或者多个文件
下面是一段entry和output项的配置示例：
entry: {
a: './src/js/a.js'
},
output: {
path: path.resolve(debug ? '__build' : './assets/'),
filename: debug ? '[name].js' : 'js/[chunkhash:8].[name].min.js',
chunkFilename: debug ? '[chunkhash:8].chunk.js' : 'js/[chunkhash:8].chunk.min.js',
publicPath: debug ? '/__build/' : ''
}
其中entry项是入口文件路径映射表，output项是对输出文件路径和名称的配置，占位符如[id][chunkhash][name]等分别代表编译后的模块id、chunk的hashnum值、chunk名等，可以任意组合决定最终输出的资源格式。hashnum的做法，基本上弱化了版本号的概念，版本迭代的时候chunk是否更新只取决于chnuk的内容是否发生变化。
细心的同学可能会有疑问，entry表示入口文件，需要手动指定，那么chunk到底是什么，chunk是怎么生成的？
在开发webapp时，总会有一些功能是使用过程中才会用到的，出于性能优化的需要，对于这部分资源我们希望做成异步加载，所以这部分的代码一般不用打包到入口文件里边。
对于这一点，webpack提供了非常好的支持，即code splitting，即使用require.ensure()作为代码分割的标识。
例如某个需求场景，根据url参数，加载不同的两个UI组件，示例代码如下：
var component = getUrlQuery('component');
if('dialog' === component) {
require.ensure([], function(require) {
var dialog = require('./components/dialog');
// todo ...
});
}
if('toast' === component) {
require.ensure([], function(require) {
var toast = require('./components/toast');
// todo ...
});
}
url分别输入不同的参数后得到瀑布图：
code_splitting1
code_splitting2
webpack将require.ensure()包裹的部分单独打包了，即图中看到的[hash].chunk.js，既解决了异步加载的问题，又保证了加载到的是最新的chunk的内容。
假设app还有一个入口页面b.html，那麽就需要相应的再增加一个入口文件b.js，直接在entry项配置即可。多个入口文件之间可能公用一个模块，可以使用CommonsChunkPlugin插件对指定的chunks进行公共模块的提取，下面代码示例演示提取所有入口文件公用的模块，将其独立打包：
var chunks = Object.keys(entries);
plugins: [
new CommonsChunkPlugin({
name: 'vendors', // 将公共模块提取，生成名为`vendors`的chunk
chunks: chunks,
minChunks: chunks.length // 提取所有entry共同依赖的模块
})
],
资源的实时更新
引用模块，webpack提供了require()API（也可以通过添加bable插件来支持ES6的import语法）。但是在开发阶段不可能改一次编译一次，webpack提供了强大的热更新支持，即HMR(hot module replace)
HMR简单说就是webpack启动一个本地webserver（webpack-dev-server），负责处理由webpack生成的静态资源请求。注意webpack-dev-server是把所有资源存储在内存的，所以你会发现在本地没有生成对应的chunk访问却正常。
下面这张来自webpack官网的图片，可以很清晰地说明moduleentrychunk三者的关系以及webpack如何实现热更新的：
HMR
enter0表示入口文件，chunk1~4分别是提取公共模块所生成的资源块，当模块4和9发生改变时，因为模块4被打包在chunk1中，模块9打包在chunk3中，所以HMR runtime会将变更部分同步到chunk1和chunk3中对应的模块，从而达到hot replace。
webpack-dev-server的启动很简单，配置完成之后可以通过cli启动，然后在页面引入入口文件时添加webpack-dev-server的host即可将HMR集成到已有服务器：
...
<body>
...
<script src="http://localhost:3005/__build/vendors.js"></script>
<script src="http://localhost:3005/__build/a.js"></script>
</body>
...
因为我们的local server就是基于Node.js的webserver，这里可以更进一步，将webpack开发服务器以中间件的形式集成到local webserver，不需要cli方式启动（少开一个cmd tab）：
// app.js
var webpackDevMiddleware = require('koa-webpack-dev-middleware');
var webpack = require('webpack');
var webpackConf = require('./webpack.config');
app.use(webpackDevMiddleware(webpack(webpackConf), {
contentBase: webpackConf.output.path,
publicPath: webpackConf.output.publicPath,
hot: true,
stats: webpackConf.devServer.stats
}));
启动HMR之后，每次保存都会重新编译生成新的chnuk，通过控制台的log，可以很直观地看到这一过程：
HMR build
公用代码的处理：封装组件
webpack解决了资源依赖的问题，这使得封装组件变得很容易，例如：
// js/components/component-x.js
require('./component-x.css');
// @see https://github.com/okonet/ejs-loader
var template = require('./component-x.ejs');
var str = template({foo: 'bar'});
function someMethod() {}
exports.someMethod = someMethod;
使用：
// js/a.js
import {someMethod} from "./components/component-x";
someMethod();
正如开头所说，将三种语言、多种资源合并成js来管理，大大降低了维护成本。
对于新开发的组件或library，建议推送到npm仓库进行共享。如果需要支持其他加载方式（如RequireJS或标签直接引入），可以参考webpack提供的externals项。
资源路径切换
由于入口文件是手动使用script引入的，在webpack编译之后入口文件的名称和路径一般会改变，即开发环境和生产环境引用的路径不同：
// 开发环境
// a.html
<script src="/__build/vendors.js"></script>
<script src="/__build/a.js"></script>
// 生产环境
// a.html
<script src="http://cdn.site.com/js/460de4b8.vendors.min.js"></script>
<script src="http://cdn.site.com/js/e7d20340.a.min.js"></script>
webpack提供了HtmlWebpackPlugin插件来解决这个问题，HtmlWebpackPlugin支持从模板生成html文件，生成的html里边可以正确解决js打包之后的路径、文件名问题，配置示例：
// webpack.config.js
plugins: [
new HtmlWebpackPlugin({
template: './src/a.html',
filename: 'a',
inject: 'body',
chunks: ['vendors', 'a']
})
]
这里资源根路径的配置在output项：
// webpack.config.js
output: {
...
publicPath: debug ? '/__build/' : 'http://cdn.site.com/'
}
其他入口html文件采用类似处理方式。
辅助工具集成
local server解决本地开发环境的问题，webpack解决开发和生产环境资源依赖管理的问题。在项目开发中，可能会有许多额外的任务需要完成，比如对于使用compass生成sprites的项目，因目前webpack还不直接支持sprites，所以还需要compass watch，再比如工程的远程部署等，所以需要使用一些构建工具或者脚本的配合，打通研发的链路。
因为每个团队在部署代码、单元测试、自动化测试、发布等方面做法都不同，前端需要遵循公司的标准进行自动化的整合，这部分不深入了。
对比&综述
前端工程化的建设，早期的做法是使用Grunt、Gulp等构建工具。但本质上它们只是一个任务调度器，将功能独立的任务拆解出来，按需组合运行任务。如果要完成前端工程化，这两者配置门槛很高，每一个任务都需要开发者自行使用插件解决，而且对于资源的依赖管理能力太弱。
在国内，百度出品的fis也是一种不错的工程化工具的选择，fis内部也解决了资源依赖管理的问题。因笔者没有在项目中实践过fis，所以不进行更多的评价。
webpack以一种非常优雅的方式解决了前端资源依赖管理的问题，它在内部已经集成了许多资源依赖处理的细节，但是对于使用者而言只需要做少量的配置，再结合构建工具，很容易搭建一套前端工程解决方案。
基于webpack的前端自动化工具，可以自由组合各种开源技术栈（Koa/Express/其他web框架、webpack、Sass/Less/Stylus、Gulp/Grunt等），没有复杂的资源依赖配置，工程结构也相对简单和灵活。
附上笔者根据本篇的理论所完成的一个前端自动化解决方案项目模板：
webpack-seed
（完）。
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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Closed Bug 1568841 Opened 2 years ago Closed 2 years ago
Blurry font rendering after landing patch from bug #1553818
Categories
(Core :: Graphics: Text, defect, P1)
70 Branch
All
Windows
defect
Tracking
()
VERIFIED FIXED
mozilla70
Tracking Status
firefox-esr60 --- unaffected
firefox-esr68 --- unaffected
firefox68 --- unaffected
firefox69 + verified
firefox70 + verified
People
(Reporter: Virtual, Assigned: lsalzman)
References
(Regression)
Details
(5 keywords)
Attachments
(11 files)
11.06 KB, text/plain
Details
115.92 KB, image/png
Details
116.59 KB, image/png
Details
14.45 KB, text/plain
Details
47 bytes, text/x-phabricator-request
Details | Review
47 bytes, text/x-phabricator-request
Details | Review
68.79 KB, image/png
Details
62.88 KB, image/png
Details
85.51 KB, image/png
Details
82.04 KB, image/png
Details
120.20 KB, image/png
Details
STR:
1. Open about:support or any Firefox menu
and see that font is blurry
Could you copy-paste the graphics section og your about:support page here?
Flags: needinfo?(Virtual)
Also, finding a regression range with mozregression would be super helpful.
@ Lee Salzman [:lsalzman] - Could you please look on this issue, as your patch caused it. Thanks!
Flags: needinfo?(Virtual) → needinfo?(lsalzman)
Regressed by: 1553818
Summary: Mozilla Firefox Nightly 70.0a1 (2019-07-25) has blurry font rendering → Blurry font rendering after landing patch from bug #1553818
Regression caused by:
Bug 1553818 - use GDI ClearType contrast for GDI font gamma. r=jrmuizel
Differential Revision:
https://phabricator.services.mozilla.com/D39101
Has Regression Range: --- → yes
OS: Windows 7 → Windows
Hardware: x86_64 → Desktop
Version: 67 Branch → 70 Branch
Could you post "before" and "after" screenshots showing the regression you're seeing? There's so much variation among graphics and rendering systems that it's hard to be sure whether Lee or other developers will be seeing the same results as you.
Attached file about:support
I'm also experiencing it but it occurs on all text. The STR Virtual_ManPL listed is actually a less noticible way of reproducing than simply visiting any website (I'm using dark theme). It is much easier to notice it with black text on a white background.
I am using font scaling at 1.04x.
I'm also experiencing it but it occurs on all text. The STR Virtual_ManPL listed is actually a less noticible way of reproducing than simply visiting any website (I'm using dark theme). It is much easier to notice it with black text on a white background.
I am using font scaling at 1.04x.
The problem is enhanced contrast being applied in the GDI case. The gamma is actually now correct, it was just that the contrast artificially brightened dark text, but left light text unaffected, which is why we didn't notice this in the original bug.
Flags: needinfo?(lsalzman)
Pushed by [email protected]:
https://hg.mozilla.org/integration/autoland/rev/2cc215b4d3f6
Don't use enhanced contrast on GDI fonts. r=jfkthame
Assignee: nobody → lsalzman
Status: NEW → ASSIGNED
Priority: -- → P1
Status: ASSIGNED → RESOLVED
Closed: 2 years ago
Resolution: --- → FIXED
Target Milestone: --- → mozilla70
Pushed by [email protected]:
https://hg.mozilla.org/integration/autoland/rev/90a13bb83261
force GDI parameters for GDI render mode. r=jrmuizel
I'm confirming that bug is fixed, starting in Mozilla Firefox Nightly 70.0a1 (2019-07-26), so I'm marking this bug as VERIFIED.
Thank you very much! \o/
Status: RESOLVED → VERIFIED
Font isn't 100% fixed for me, it seems like ClearType isn't working properly as text now looks thin and aliased. Not sure if it's due to this bug exactly though.
Could you please post screenshots before this bug and after patch with same content?
Flags: needinfo?(wot_up_dogg)
Hmm... I can't spot any difference now with the 20th build, haven't tried others but I have a feeling it may have been the latest 1903 Windows update.
Flags: needinfo?(wot_up_dogg)
Actually I can spot the differences but I can't immediately notice it anywhere but in the tab title. I'm not sure if the 20th build had correct font rendering but you can see the difference in font weight with these screenshots:
"[21]" is noticeably red and blue in comment 23, but it looks perfect in comment 24. By bug 1553818 some fonts were made thinner again to match pre-WebRender appearance.
Attached image before bug1568841.PNG
:darkspirit, I agree that the 27th build looks better when looking closely but I'm running a rather heavy ClearType: ClearType Parameters: Gamma: 2.2 Pixel Structure: RGB ClearType Level: 100 Enhanced Contrast: 100 which imo should be making the text have a little more weight to it.
The problem I'm facing is my eyesight has problems reading the now very thin text. I'm already using 1.04x scaling and going even .01 higher causes websites to have stupidly large text.
Attached image webrenderdisabled.PNG
This is with Webrender disabled, while for some reason it doesn't seem as clear in the screenshot (is sniping tool really lossless even though it's saving as png?) it is much clearer than current WR enabled. Most notably on the 0s.
Attachment #9080609 - Attachment description: bad.png → without patch from bug #1553818.png
Attachment #9080609 - Attachment filename: bad.png → without patch from bug #1553818.png
Attachment #9080610 - Attachment description: good.png → with patch from bug #1553818.png
Attachment #9080610 - Attachment filename: good.png → with patch from bug #1553818.png
Attachment #9081122 - Attachment filename: no issue.png → with patch from bug #1553818 & bug #1568841.png
Attachment #9081122 - Attachment is patch: false
In my case:
@ Jules A - Looks like you need to tune your non-default settings.
@ Lee Salzman [:lsalzman] - Thank you very much for fixing this issue, now with default settings text looks even better than before. Per bug #1553818 comment #13, I would like to request the request for uplifting also this bug to Firefox 69.
Flags: needinfo?(lsalzman)
Attachment #9080609 - Attachment description: without patch from bug #1553818.png → with patch from bug #1553818.png
Attachment #9080609 - Attachment filename: without patch from bug #1553818.png → with patch from bug #1553818.png
Attachment #9080610 - Attachment description: with patch from bug #1553818.png → without patch from bug #1553818.png
Attachment #9080610 - Attachment filename: with patch from bug #1553818.png → without patch from bug #1553818.png
@Virtual_ManPL I don't think you understand my issue though to be fair I think my main issue is actually moreso to do with bug #1553818 than this bug. Changing Cleartype will make every other app that uses it look like garbage so that's not an option (currently Edge has the best font rendering by default (since WR is by default enabled). Clearing font.size.systemFontScale means I would need to increase the whole app scaling which breaks themes and other UI elements while adding blurriness to the whole browser.
It's not that text isn't sharp now, it's just that it's too sharp that aliasing is a problem.
Why is it that WR disabled is able to respect these necessary changes of mine but it no longer does with WR enabled?
Oh and I'm using a 27" 1440p monitor, in-case you were wondering.
@ Jules A - Oh, I'm sorry, you're using mainly WebRender compositing. In my case I'm using Direct3D 11 (Advanced Layers) compositing, as I'm on Windows 7 and WebRender is disabled on it by default as I'm seeing in about:support, so no wonder I didn't understand you completely. I was thinking that it's mainly because of modified and changed default ClearType options either in system or browser. I could only recommend for you creating new bug about this and attach identical whole screenshots (like mine here) to easy spot differences between them. CC or needinfo me there, and I would help, if you will need it.
Comment on attachment 9080648 [details]
Bug 1568841 - Don't use enhanced contrast on GDI fonts. r?jfkthame
Beta/Release Uplift Approval Request
• User impact if declined: Windows users will see GDI fonts with incorrect contrast if using WebRender or Skia.
• Is this code covered by automated tests?: Yes
• Has the fix been verified in Nightly?: Yes
• Needs manual test from QE?: No
• If yes, steps to reproduce:
• List of other uplifts needed: None
• Risk to taking this patch: Low
• Why is the change risky/not risky? (and alternatives if risky):
• String changes made/needed:
Flags: needinfo?(lsalzman)
Attachment #9080648 - Flags: approval-mozilla-beta?
Attachment #9080960 - Flags: approval-mozilla-beta?
Comment on attachment 9080648 [details]
Bug 1568841 - Don't use enhanced contrast on GDI fonts. r?jfkthame
Follow-up fix for bug 1563818 to further improve Windows font rendering for users with WebRender enabled. Approved for 69.0b9.
Attachment #9080648 - Flags: approval-mozilla-beta? → approval-mozilla-beta+
Attachment #9080960 - Flags: approval-mozilla-beta? → approval-mozilla-beta+
QA Whiteboard: [qa-triaged]
Thanks for verification Virtual_ManPL.
Flags: qe-verify+
You need to log in before you can comment on or make changes to this bug.
|
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Discrete Differential Geometry Assignment 0
DDG Week2 Writing Assignment
2.1
Show that VE+F=1V - E + F = 1 for any polygonal disk.
For a simple n-sided polygon with n vertices, n edges, and 1 face, the equation above holds. When conncting another n-sided polygon to form a disk, the polygon can connect to the existing disk by merging mm edges. This will generate nmn-m edges, n(m+1)n-(m+1) vertices, and 1 new face.
V=V+nm+1E=E+nmF=F+1VE+F=VE+F+(n(m+1))(nm)+1=VE+F=1V' = V + n - m + 1 \\ E' = E + n - m \\ F' = F + 1 \\ V' - E' + F' = V - E + F + (n-(m+1)) - (n-m) + 1 = V - E + F = 1
The last equality stems from our inductive assumption.
2.2
In a platonic solid, there are FF m, n-gons meeting at VV vertices.
(F/m)(nF/2)+F=2(F/m) - (nF/2) + F = 2
2.8
Cl(S)
St(S)
Lk(S)
2.9
2.10
2.11
A0 = [
[1,1,0,0,0],
[1,0,1,0,0],
[1,0,0,1,0],
[1,0,0,0,1],
[0,1,0,0,1],
[0,1,1,0,0],
[0,0,1,1,0],
[0,0,0,1,1]
]
A1 = [
[1,0,0,1,1,0,0,0],
[1,1,0,0,0,1,0,0],
[0,1,1,0,0,0,1,0],
[0,0,1,1,0,0,0,1]
]
Coding
Code is somewhere, I haven't decided where to put it. The screenshots below should verify that the c++ code is working to solve the exercises.
All tests green: 11 tests passed
Star star
Link Link
Closure closure
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298
I have been reading some articles on memory leaks in Android and watched this interesting video from Google I/O on the subject.
Still, I don't fully understand the concept, and especially when it is safe or dangerous to user inner classes inside an Activity.
This is what I understood:
A memory leak will occur if an instance of an inner class survives longer than its outer class (an Activity). -> In which situations can this happen?
In this example, I suppose there is no risk of leak, because there is no way the anonymous class extending OnClickListener will live longer than the activity, right?
final Dialog dialog = new Dialog(this);
dialog.setContentView(R.layout.dialog_generic);
Button okButton = (Button) dialog.findViewById(R.id.dialog_button_ok);
TextView titleTv = (TextView) dialog.findViewById(R.id.dialog_generic_title);
// *** Handle button click
okButton.setOnClickListener(new OnClickListener() {
public void onClick(View v) {
dialog.dismiss();
}
});
titleTv.setText("dialog title");
dialog.show();
Now, is this example dangerous, and why?
// We are still inside an Activity
_handlerToDelayDroidMove = new Handler();
_handlerToDelayDroidMove.postDelayed(_droidPlayRunnable, 10000);
private Runnable _droidPlayRunnable = new Runnable() {
public void run() {
_someFieldOfTheActivity.performLongCalculation();
}
};
I have a doubt regarding the fact that understanding this topic has to do with understanding in detail what is kept when an activity is destroyed and re-created.
Is it?
Let say I just changed the orientation of the device (which is the most common cause of leaks). When super.onCreate(savedInstanceState) will be called in my onCreate(), will this restore the values of the fields (as they were before orientation change)? Will this also restore the states of inner classes?
I realize my question is not very precise, but I'd really appreciate any explanation that could make things clearer.
612
What you are asking is a pretty tough question. While you may think it is just one question, you are actually asking several questions at once. I'll do my best with the knowledge that I have to cover it and, hopefully, some others will join in to cover what I may miss.
Nested Classes: Introduction
As I'm not sure how comfortable you are with OOP in Java, this will hit a couple of basics. A nested class is when a class definition is contained within another class. There are basically two types: Static Nested Classes and Inner Classes. The real difference between these are:
• Static Nested Classes:
• Are considered "top-level".
• Do not require an instance of the containing class to be constructed.
• May not reference the containing class members without an explicit reference.
• Have their own lifetime.
• Inner Nested Classes:
• Always require an instance of the containing class to be constructed.
• Automatically have an implicit reference to the containing instance.
• May access the container's class members without the reference.
• Lifetime is supposed to be no longer than that of the container.
Garbage Collection and Inner Classes
Garbage Collection is automatic but tries to remove objects based on whether it thinks they are being used. The Garbage Collector is pretty smart, but not flawless. It can only determine if something is being used by whether or not there is an active reference to the object.
The real issue here is when a inner class has been kept alive longer than its container. This is because of the implicit reference to the containing class. The only way this can occur is if an object outside of the containing class keeps a reference to the inner object, without regard to the containing object.
This can lead to a situation where the inner object is alive (via reference) but the references to the containing object has already been removed from all other objects. The inner object is, therefore, keeping the containing object alive because it will always have a reference to it. The problem with this is that unless it is programmed, there is no way to get back to the containing object to check if it is even alive.
The most important aspect to this realization is that it makes no difference whether it is in an Activity or is a drawable. You will always have to be methodical when using inner classes and make sure that they never outlive objects of the container. Luckily, if it isn't a core object of your code, the leaks may be small in comparison. Unfortunately, these are some of the hardest leaks to find, because they are likely to go unnoticed until many of them have leaked.
Solutions: Inner Classes
• Gain temporary references from the containing object.
• Allow the containing object to be the only one to keep long-lived references to the inner objects.
• Use established patterns such as the Factory.
• If the inner class does not require access to the containing class members, consider turning it into a static class.
• Use with caution, regardless of whether it is in an Activity or not.
Activities and Views: Introduction
Activities contain a lot of information to be able to run and display. Activities are defined by the characteristic that they must have a View. They also have certain automatic handlers. Whether you specify it or not, the Activity has an implicit reference to the View it contains.
In order for a View to be created, it must know where to create it and whether it has any children so that it can display. This means that every View has an reference to the Activity (via getContext()). Moreover, every View keeps references to its children (i.e. getChildAt()). Finally, each View keeps a reference to the rendered Bitmap that represents its display.
Whenever you have a reference to an Activity (or Activity Context), this means that you can follow the ENTIRE chain down the layout hierarchy. This is why memory leaks regarding Activities or Views are such a huge deal. It can be a ton of memory being leaked all at once.
Activities, Views and Inner Classes
Given the information above about Inner Classes, these are the most common memory leaks, but also the most commonly avoided. While it is desirable to have an inner class have direct access to an Activities class members, many are willing to just make them static to avoid potential issues. The problem with Activities and Views goes much deeper than that.
Leaked Activities, Views and Activity Contexts
It all comes down to the Context and the LifeCycle. There are certain events (such as orientation) that will kill an Activity Context. Since so many classes and methods require a Context, developers will sometimes try to save some code by grabbing a reference to a Context and holding onto it. It just so happens that many of the objects we have to create to run our Activity have to exist outside of the Activity LifeCycle in order to allow the Activity to do what it needs to do. If any of your objects happen to have a reference to an Activity, its Context, or any of its Views when it is destroyed, you have just leaked that Activity and its entire View tree.
Solutions: Activities and Views
• Avoid, at all costs, making a Static reference to a View or Activity.
• All references to Activity Contexts should be short lived (the duration of the function)
• If you need a long-lived Context, use the Application Context (getBaseContext() or getApplicationContext()). These do not keep references implicitly.
• Alternatively, you may limit the destruction of an Activity by overriding Configuration Changes. However, this does not stop other potential events from destroying the Activity. While you can do this, you may still want to refer to the above practices.
Runnables: Introduction
Runnables are actually not that bad. I mean, they could be, but really we've already hit most of the danger zones. A Runnable is an asynchronous operation that performs a task independant from the thread it was created on. Most runnables are instantiated from the UI thread. In essence, using a Runnable is creating another thread, just slightly more managed. If you class a Runnable like a standard class and follow the guidelines above, you should run into few problem. The reality is that many developers do not do this.
Out of ease, readability and logical program flow, many developers utilize Anonymous Inner Classes to define their Runnables, such as the example you create above. This results in an example like the one you typed above. An Anonymous Inner Class is basically a discrete Inner Class. You just don't have to create a whole new definition and simply override the appropriate methods. In all other respects it is a Inner Class, which means that it keeps an implicit reference to its container.
Runnables and Activities/Views
Yay! This section can be short! Due to the fact that Runnables run outside of the current thread, the danger with these comes to long running asynchronous operations. If the runnable is defined in an Activity or View as an Anonymous Inner Class OR nested Inner Class, there are some very serious dangers. This is because, as previously stated, it has to know who its container is. Enter the orientation change (or system kill). Now just refer back to the previous sections to understand what just happened. Yes, your example is quite dangerous.
Solutions: Runnables
• Try and extend Runnable, if it doesn't break the logic of your code.
• Do your best to make extended Runnables static, if they must be nested classes.
• If you must use Anonymous Runnables, avoid creating them in any object that has a long-lived reference to an Activity or View that is in use.
• Many Runnables could just as easily have been AsyncTasks. Consider using AsyncTask as those are VM Managed by default.
Answering the Final Question Now to answer the questions that were not directly addressed by the other sections of this post. You asked "When can an object of an inner class survive longer than its outer class?" Before we get to this, let me reemphasize: though you are right to worry about this in Activities, it can cause a leak anywhere. I shall provide a simple example (without using an Activity) just to demonstrate.
Below is a common example of a basic factory (missing the code).
public class LeakFactory
{//Just so that we have some data to leak
int myID = 0;
// Necessary because our Leak class is an Inner class
public Leak createLeak()
{
return new Leak();
}
// Mass Manufactured Leak class
public class Leak
{//Again for a little data.
int size = 1;
}
}
This is a not as common example, but simple enough to demonstrate. The key here is the constructor...
public class SwissCheese
{//Can't have swiss cheese without some holes
public Leak[] myHoles;
public SwissCheese()
{//Gotta have a Factory to make my holes
LeakFactory _holeDriller = new LeakFactory()
// Now, let's get the holes and store them.
myHoles = new Leak[1000];
for (int i = 0; i++; i<1000)
{//Store them in the class member
myHoles[i] = _holeDriller.createLeak();
}
// Yay! We're done!
// Buh-bye LeakFactory. I don't need you anymore...
}
}
Now, we have Leaks, but no Factory. Even though we released the Factory, it will remain in memory because every single Leak has a reference to it. It doesn't even matter that the outer class has no data. This happens far more often than one might think. We don't need the creator, just its creations. So we create one temporarily, but use the creations indefinitely.
Imagine what happens when we change the constructor just slightly.
public class SwissCheese
{//Can't have swiss cheese without some holes
public Leak[] myHoles;
public SwissCheese()
{//Now, let's get the holes and store them.
myHoles = new Leak[1000];
for (int i = 0; i++; i<1000)
{//WOW! I don't even have to create a Factory...
// This is SOOOO much prettier....
myHoles[i] = new LeakFactory().createLeak();
}
}
}
Now, every single one of those new LeakFactories has just been leaked. What do you think of that? Those are two very common examples of how a inner class can outlive an outer class of any type. If that outer class had been an Activity, imagine how much worse it would have been.
Conclusion
These list the primarily known dangers of using these objects inappropriately. In general, this post should have covered most of your questions, but I understand it was a loooong post, so if you need clarification, just let me know. As long as you follow the above practices, you will have very little worry of leakage.
• 3
Thanks a lot for this clear and detailed answer. I just don't get what you mean by "many developers utilize closures to define their Runnables" – Sébastien Jun 10 '12 at 19:37
• 1
Closures in Java are Anonymous Inner Classes, like the Runnable you describe. Its a way to utilize a class (almost extend it) without writing a defined Class that extends Runnable. It's called a closure because it is "a closed class definition" in that it has its own closed memory space within the actual containing object. – Fuzzical Logic Jun 10 '12 at 20:00
• 22
Enlightening write-up! One remark regarding terminology: There is no such thing as a static inner class in Java. (Docs). A nested class is either static or inner, but cannot be both at the same time. – jenzz Jun 16 '13 at 19:53
• 2
While that is technically correct, Java allows you to define static classes inside static classes. The terminology is not for my benefit, but for the benefit of others who do not understand the technical semantics. This is why it is first mentioned that they are "top-level". The Android developer docs also use this terminology, and this is for people looking at Android development, so I thought it better to keep consistency. – Fuzzical Logic Jun 20 '13 at 7:39
• 12
Great post, one of the best at StackOverflow, esp for Android. – StackOverflowed Jul 21 '13 at 23:49
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When Can You Get Your Tubes Tied? Your Age Makes A Big Difference
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Getting your tubes tied isn't a particularly common topic of conversation for most of us. Until recently, I had only had one conversation about tubal ligation in my life, and any thoughts I had on the matter felt like they belonged very far in the very distant future. Getting your tubes tied is a topic for old people, and a relatively simple procedure, right? Well, not exactly. So when can you get your tubes tied? It's not as simple as you'd think.
There is no strict age requirement for having your tubes tied, but states and insurance companies might have varying requirements if you are seeking a tubal ligation at a young age, according to Dr. Nicole Scogin, OB-GYN at the All About Women Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinic in Gainesville, Florida, in an interview with Romper. "Federally funded insurances require a federal sterilization form that specifies an age of 21 to make this decision and have the cost be covered by their insurance," she says. That’s not to say that you can’t have your tubes tied at a younger age if you are paying out of pocket or going through a non-federally funded insurance plan. However, it can be difficult to get a doctor to agree to perform a tubal ligation if you are choosing to do so at a young age and before you have any children.
If you are looking to have a tubal ligation before having any children and at a young age (considered to be younger than your mid-20s by many doctors), you can technically have the procedure done but you might have difficulty convincing a doctor to do the procedure. Apparently this is due to the high rate of regret that young patients report in the years following their tubal ligation. A study on sterilization in the United States in Obstetrics and Gynecology reported that "Young age at the time of sterilization is the strongest predictor of future regret. Women under the age of 30 at the time of the procedure were twice as likely as women older than 30 to report regretting having the procedure performed."
Giphy
The type of procedure you can have might depend on whether you are combining the surgery with either having a c-section or a vaginal birth. If you are having your tubes tied following having a baby, the procedure would likely involve going through your belly button; if you are having a tubal ligation more than six weeks after having a baby, you might need to have a procedure that involves a few more incisions.
One way to have a tubal ligation is directly after having given birth by cesarean section, within 24-48 hours of giving birth vaginally, or once you've healed for at least six weeks after either kind of delivery. Dr. Scogin, explains, "You can opt for postpartum sterilization that's done immediately postpartum during a c-section and we can tie your tubes assuming we can reach them. Or you can have postpartum sterilization that's done within the first 24-48 hours immediately following your vaginal delivery." Because the uterus is enlarged from giving birth, doctors can more easily reach the tubes using an incision underneath the umbilicus.
Tubal ligation is a procedure that is done under general anesthesia to permanently close your fallopian tubes, ensuring that you don't become pregnant because sperm is unable to meet the egg that would otherwise travel down the tube, according to Planned Parenthood. It is designed to be a permanent procedure, despite the temporary image the phrase invokes. Planned Parenthood also pointed out, "You still get your period after tubal ligation — you just can’t get pregnant."
A natural time to have a tubal ligation is directly after giving birth, but if you are opting to have your tubes tied but aren't delivering a baby in the future, you can have a tubal ligation done laparoscopically so long as you haven't given birth within the last six weeks. Dr. Scogin explains that a laparoscopic tubal ligation typically involves a single incision through the umbilicus or belly button, but can sometimes require other small incisions in order to reach the tubes.
Giphy
There are various ways doctors use to actually "tie" the tubes, none of which involve tying them into neat little bows, which is the mental picture the term lends itself to. Instead, Dr. Scogin says, doctors can "burn the tubes, place clamps on the tubes , or completely remove them." The first two options usually require only one incision, whereas as removing the tubes altogether requires multiple incisions because "if you remove them you need some assistant ports."
Dr. Scogin recommends discussing with your doctor which type of tubal ligation you'd prefer based on your particular needs. "Patients with a strong family history of ovarian cancer, should sometimes opt for removing the tubes. There is a 67 [percent] decrease in the risk for ovarian cancer if you remove the tubes because of the way epithelial cancers develop."
However, if you are looking for a birth control method, Dr. Scogin suggested considering other methods, including hormonal IUDs (that can even help address other problems like painful periods or excessive bleeding) or a male vasectomy. Because tubal ligation is a permanent method, the risk for regret, especially if a patient is very young, can be high. "There are ways to reverse it but they are not often successful," said Dr. Scogin, "The risk for regret is fairly high in studies, especially in patients younger than 30, it can be as high as 25 [percent]." Alternatively, she pointed out that a "vasectomy is an in-office procedure, it doesn't take anesthesia, and the risk for regret for men is about 5 [percent], even under age 30."
Because having your tubes tied is a simpler procedure to complete when you have just given birth, it's a topic for consideration for women as they believe they are finished having children. It's also something some women consider even if they haven't had any children and don't plan to, although many women report that convincing a doctor to perform a tubal ligation on a young woman is an uphill battle.
Giphy
Virginia gynecologist Yekaterina Rabkin, in a conversation with Slate, explained that she did everything in her power to only perform tubal ligations during C-sections: “Otherwise, you expose someone to surgical risk without any improvement in efficacy, a higher risk of ectopic pregnancy [due to procedural failure], and the issue of regret … I genuinely believe that a tubal ligation is not the best option for contraception for most people.”
So while it might seem like a simple procedure, there is clearly a lot of consideration that should go into your decision, especially because tubal ligation is a procedure for permanent sterilization. Dr. Scoggin explains, "The procedure is very difficult to reverse; they have to understand it's meant to be a permanent procedure. There are ways to reverse it but they are not often successful."
Whether or not you decide to get your tubes tied is, of course, your own prerogative, but it's helpful to know about the roadblocks you may face along the way.
Check out Romper's new video series, Bearing The Motherload, where disagreeing parents from different sides of an issue sit down with a mediator and talk about how to support (and not judge) each other’s parenting perspectives. New episodes air Mondays on Facebook.
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Common Pipistrelle
Common PipistrelleCommon Pipistrelle
Latin name: Pipistrellus pipistrellus
The Common Pipistrelle is the most commonly encountered bat in Aldernery and is recognisable from it’s broad wings and jerky flight pattern. Often hunts in fixed paths over grasslands, woodland and urban areas. Most active for two hours before and after dawn and dusk respectively. During this period a single individual is capable of consuming over 3000 insects which they eat on the wing.
Echolocation Frequency: Strongest at 45 kHz.
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Administración de usuarios en Oracle
1. Creación de usuarios
Una de las más básicas tareas de un administrador de base de datos es identificar los usuarios. Cada usuario que conecta en la base de datos debe de tener una cuenta. En las cuentas compartidas son difíciles de aplicar una auditoria.
Para crear un usuario utilizamos la sentencia CREATE USER. Cuando creas una cuenta como mínimo tienes que asignar un único nombre (username) y una contraseña para poder autenticarse.
Para cambiar alguno de los atributos que se le ha añadido al usuario creado se utiliza la sentencia ALTER USER.
2. Autenticación Oracle
Cuando uno se conecta con una instancia de una base de datos la cuenta de usuario debe de estar autenticada. ORACLE provee tres métodos de autenticación para nuestra cuenta de usuario.
AUTENTICACIÓN MEDIANTE PASSWORD:
Cuando un usuario conecta con una base de datos verifica que este usuario y la contraseña introducida almacenada en la base de datos, sea correcta. Las contraseñas se guardan encriptadas en la base de datos (en el data dictionary).
SQL > CREATE USER david IDENTIFIED BY tititus;
En este caso tititus es la contraseña de david que será guardada encriptada en la base de datos.
AUTENTICACIÓN EXTERNA:
Cuando un usuario conecta con la base de datos se verifica que el nombre de usuario es el mismo que el nombre de usuario del sistema operativo para permitir la validación.
No se almacenan las cuentas en la base de datos de ninguna forma. Estas cuentas están siempre referidas con OPS$ .A partir de la versión 10g puedes configurar OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX en el spfile
SQL > CREATE USER ops$david IDENTIFIED BY tititus;
Mediante IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY decimos a la base de datos que nuestra cuenta es externa y tiene que ser validada con el sistema operativo.
AUTENTICACIÓN GLOBAL:
Cuando un usuario se conecta con la base de datos se verifica globalmente cuando la información pasa por una opción avanzada de seguridad ( ADVANCED SECURITY OPTION ) para la autenticación tal como Kerberos, RADIUS ….
Para las cuentas globales no se almacena tampoco nada en la base de datos.
SQL > CREATE USER david IDENTIFIED GLOBALLY AS ‘CN=alumnos,OU=campus .......’
Mediante IDENTIFIED GLOBALLY decimos a la base de datos que nuestra cuenta se autentica globalmente, mediante otra opción de seguridad avanzada.
3. Asignaciones a los usuarios
ASIGNACIÓN DE UN USUARIO A UN TABLESPACE ( DEFAULT TABLESPACE )
Mediante esta sentencia asignamos un usuario a un tablespace, este será su tablespace por defecto cuando creamos un usuario.
SQL > CREATE USER david IDENTIFIED BY tititus DEFAULT TABLESPACE users;
Mediante esta sentencia, en caso de tener creado ya el usuario le asignamos un tablespace.
SQL > ALTER USER david DEFAULT TABLESPACE users;
La base de datos toma un tablespace por defecto, en caso de querer cambiar este tablespace utilizamos la siguiente sentencia
SQL > ALTER DATABASE DEFAULT TABLESPACE users;
ASIGNACIÓN DE UN USUARIO A UN TABLESPACE TEMPORAL
Un tablespace temporal se utiliza para almacenar “segmentos” temporales que son creados durante operaciones como ORDER BY,SELECT DISTINCT, MERGE JOIN o CREATE INDEX. A veces a los usuarios se les asocia un tablespace temporal para realizar este tipo de operaciones, cuando estas operaciones finalizan este segmento temporal que se ha creado exclusivamente para la operación desaparece.
SQL > CREATE USER david IDENTIFIED BY tititus DEFAULT TABLESPACE users TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp;
Mediante TEMPORARY TABLESPACE asignamos como tablespace temporal temp al usuario david. En caso de que el usuario esté creado si queremos asignarle un tablespace temporal utilizamos ALTER USER
SQL > ALTER USER david TEMPORARY TABLESPACE Temp;
ASIGNACIÓN DE UN PERFIL A UN USUARIO
Al igual que podemos asignar un tablespace a un usuario, también podemos asignarle un perfil (profile). El principal perfil ( profile ) por defecto se denomina default.
Si el usuario no está lo podemos crear de la siguiente forma:
SQL > CREATE USER david IDENTIFIED BY tititus
DEFAULT TABLESPACE users
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp
PROFILE resource_profile;
En caso de que el usuario ya esté creado al igual que en los anteriores casos utilizamos la sentencia ALTER USER.
SQL > ALTER USER david PROFILE resource_profile;
BORRADO DE UN USUARIO
Para borrar un usuario utilizamos la sentencia DROP USER, podemos opcionalmente incluir la opción CASCADE, se utiliza para borrar recursivamente los objetos del usuario que se pretende borrar.
SQL > DROP USER david CASCADE
OTORGANDO PRIVILEGIOS (GRANTING)
A un usuario podemos otorgarle una serie de privilegios. Un privilegio permite a un usuario acceder a ciertos objetos o realizar ciertas acciones:.
– Privilegios sobre Objetos ( Object privileges ) a permisos sobre vistas, tablas, secuencias, procedimientos, paquetes.
– Privilegios del Sistema ( System privileges ) a permisos sobre “niveles de la base de datos” como pueden ser conexión a la base de datos, creación de usuarios, limitar cuentas.
– Privilegios sobre Roles ( Role privileges ) a muchos permisos son otorgados mediante roles agrupando un conjunto de privilegios.
Para otorgar privilegios utilizamos la sentencia GRANT, para quitar un privilegio o permiso a un usuario utilizamos la sentencia REVOKE
EJEMPLOS:
Privilegio sobre una tabla:
SQL > GRANT ALL ON tabla_alumnos TO david
Siendo tabla_alumnos una tabla de nuestra base de datos y david un usuario de esta, hemos asignado mediante GRANT ALL,todos los permisos al usuario david sobre esta tabla.
GRANT ALL = permisos SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
Si queremos asignar sólo uno de estos permisos utilizamos la misma sentencia pero con el permiso que queramos otorgar.
SQL > GRANT SELECT ON tabla_alumnos TO david
SQL > GRANT SELECT,INSERT ON tabla_alumnos TO david
Privilegio sobre una vista:
Para el caso de las vistas podemos a un usuario otorgar permisos SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, DEBUG, REFERENCES.
Siendo vista_alumnos una vista de nuestra base de datos y david un usuario de esta:
Otorgamos al usuario david todos los permisos sobre la vista vista_alumnos.
SQL > GRANT ALL ON vista_alumnos TO david
Otorgamos al usuario david algunos permisos sobre la vista_alumnos
SQL > GRANT SELECT ON vista_alumnos TO david
SQL > GRANT SELECT,INSERT ON vista_alumnos TO david
Privilegio sobre una secuencia:
Con las secuencias pasa lo mismo que con los anteriores objetos vistos, para otorgar permisos se utiliza GRANT. Los permisos que podemos otorgar a una secuencia es SELECT o ALTER.
Privilegio sobre un paquete,función o procedimiento:
Los permisos que podemos otorgar a las funciones, paquetes o procedimientos almacenados en nuestra base de datos son los siguientes: EXECUTE, DEBUG.
QUITANDO PRIVILEGIOS
Si queremos quitar un privilegio a uno de estos objetos haremos lo mismo que con GRANT pero utilizando la sentencia REVOKE.
SQL > REVOKE ALL ON tabla_usuarios FROM david
About: admin
43 thoughts on “Administración de usuarios en Oracle”
1. En un principio si desaparece el objeto desaparecen los privilegios asociados a este.
La vista donde puedes ver los privilegios que hay en tu base de datos otorgados es user_tab_privs_made
2. hola estoy aprendiendo esto del oracle y tengo una pregunta.. luego de otorgar el permiso a un usuario, como hago para hacer uso de ese permiso desde el otro usuario??? no se como se pone..
3. Hola
Si tienes un usuario USER1 con una tabla TABLE1 y le das ese permiso al usuario USER2 para que pueda seleccionar las filas de esa tabla
sql> grant select on user1.table1 to user2
Arhora puedes realizar select desde USER2 a esa tabla de la siguiente formas:
Haces login con USER2 y realizas la siguiente consulta
select * from user1.table1;
Si quieres evitar poner delante de table1 el usuario propietario de esta tabla ( USER1) para que sea visible, la opcion que tienes es crear un sinonimo sobre la tabla TABLE1 de tal forma que USER2 pueda hacer
select * from TABLE1; y pueda ver los resultados de esta tabla
4. para controlar el número de procesos os remito a los parametros de inicalización en el init.ora
PROCESSES:Máximo número de procesos de SO que pueden acceder de forma
concurrente. Mínimo: 1 por usuario + procesos de arrancados con cada instancia.
Si varía el número máximo de este valor no nos tenemos que olvidar de echar un vistado a los pararámtros
transactions y sessions que están directamente ligados con este.
5. Hola. Instale Oracle 9i pero cuando intento entrar por SQL Plus mediante el usuario de prueba scott y la contraseña tiger no se que valor colocar en «Host String» ¿que me sugieren? He probado con varios valores y me dan los siguientes errores: ORA-12541: TNS no listener ó ORA-12154: TNS Could not resolve service name.
De antemano muy Agradecido por su ayuda.
6. En un princio el error que estas recibiendo se refiere a que el listener de la base de datos no está levantado o no se reconoce el descriptor de la base de datos para la conexion, por lo tanto cuando intentes conectarte con cualquiera de los usuarios a través de sql plus vas a obtener ese error.
Intenta levantar el listener de la base de datos, y en caso de que este esté levantado revisar los ficheros de red de oracle ( sqlnet.ora y tnsnames.ora ) con el fin de ver si el sid de la base de datos al que te estás conecntado es el correcto.
utiliza el comando tnsping descriptor_base_de_datos para ver si el listener está levantado y el descriptor de conexión es correcto.
Puedes echar un vistazo a http://www.orasite.com/tutoriales/archivos-configuracion-red-oracle.html
7. Hola!
Quiero crear un usuario que tenga premiso para crear tablas pero no para crearlas. Al darle privilegio de CRATE TABLE, debe ser que lleva implícito el de borrarla, no?
Como puedo hacerlo?
8. Hola [email protected] ,
la verdad es que sin una copia de seguridad es complicado realizar una recuperación de la base de datos.
Cuál es el caso en concreto, que error tienes. Si la base de datos está en modo archivelog y da algún fallo en alguno de los datafiles, puede que si sea posible
recuperar la instancia hasta un punto estable.
9. Tengo que cargar una tabla partiendo de un fichero con un INSERT y un UPDATE. Si la carga es correcta tiene que marcarlo un testigo en el UPDATE, pero si no lo es el testigo no debe marcar nada.
El problema es que sí que lo marca cuando la carga no es correcta, cómo puedo solucionarlo?
10. Hola,
quisiera saber si alguien sabe como liberar el espacio utilizado desde un tablespace Temporal una vez que ya finaliz´la query que estaba utilizando el tablespace TEMP?
11. Tengo una pregunta, si yo tengo un usuario con privilegios de SYSDBA y posteriormente lo quiero limitar… los privilegios otorgados por este usuario ¿serán revocados al resto de usuarios?.
Gracias.
12. Que estructuras del sistema debo verificar para obtener los privilegios de un usuario, y como obtengo una descripcion de los diferentes privilegios exixtentes oracle.Muchas gracias.
13. Hola… soy nuevo en esto de oracle y tengo una pregunta!
Cuando yo creo usuarios en oracle puedo crear usuario que pueden crear, borrar, actualizar tablas en un esquema pero tambien puedo crear usuarios los cuales solo van a poder hacer select, insert, delete or update sobre esas tablas… es asi o estoy equivocado?
Gracias!
14. Hola, tengo una duda sobre el REVOKE para quitados de permisos, existe el revoke en cascada y restricto? en ese caso, cual es por defecto?….otra pregunta: la cantidad de permisos es acumulativo? es decir se tiene una pila de permisos por usuario?, por ejemplo el usuario U1 le da permiso de UPDATE sobre tabla A al usuario U2 y tambien permiso de otorgarselo a otros usuarios, el Usuario U2 le da este mismo permiso al U3. Si el usuario U3 ya tenia este permiso, se le acumula? osea, si ahora el U2 le quita el permiso al U3, el U3 lo sigue teniendo porque otro usuario ya se lo habia otorgado antes?
15. eh estado leyendo ultimamente.. y para poder crear una base de datos en el arbol.. necesito crear un usuario.. pero como hago la creacion, porq hast donde se no sea crea igual que un usuario que accesa a la BD… me podrian ayudar…!! me urge porque tengo q terminar un proyecto… por favor..!!!
16. Hola…estoy cursando mi materia de oracle….tengo dos maquinas en red…pero en una me puse a ingresar los datos de las tablas con el insert…despues quise ingresar desde la otra maquina pero no me salen los datos de las tablas me imagino que al insertar datos en una maquina en la otra no se guardan…lo que quiero que me ayuden es en como hago un backup a la otra maquina. Mil gracias por tu ayuda.
17. Hola, espero puedan ayudarme. Estoy trabajando sobre un esquema DBMIGRAC y tengo que acceder a las tablas que están en otro esquema llamado AUSLOG, en DBMIGRAC tengo los pkg y yo hago lo siguiente:
INSERT INTO AUSLOG.CONTACT (name,
last_name)
select m_name, m_last_name from m_persona;
Esto funciona en el editor de TOAD correctamente, pero en el cuerpo del pkg me da error de compilación. Me dice que no existe la tabla o vista y se posiciona sobre la línea de INSERT.
Alguien podría ayudarme? por favor, es bastante urgente…no sé si me falta algo.
Muchas gracias de antemano!
18. Hola, se puede implementar una politica para que ademas de que un usuario de oracle pueda modificar una tabla, sea de un usuario de Red en especifico…
19. Es falso lo que se indica en el apartado de autenticacion externa ya que las cuentas de usuario si se guardan en la BBDD. Lo que no se guardan son las contraseñas. Tampoco es cierto que las cuentas esten SIEMPRE referidas con OPS$
20. Buenos días, yo tengo una duda, imaginemos que tenemos dos usuarios, user1 y user2, de los cuales user1 ha creado un número elevado de tablas y queremos darle unicamente permiso al user2 de lectura como se puede hacer????
Gracías
Deja una respuesta
Tu dirección de correo electrónico no será publicada. Los campos obligatorios están marcados con *
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Excitability of Dopamine Neurons: Modulation and Physiological Consequences | BenthamScience
Excitability of Dopamine Neurons: Modulation and Physiological Consequences
Author(s): F. J. White, X- T. Hu, M. Marinelli, C. N. Rudick.
Journal Name: CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets
Volume 5 , Issue 1 , 2006
Abstract:
This aim of this chapter is to review literature on the excitability and function of dopamine neurons that originate in the midbrain and project to cortico-limbic and motor structures (A9 and A10 dopamine pathways). Electrophysiological studies on rodent or non-human primates have shown that these dopamine neurons are silent or spontaneously active. The spontaneously active neurons show slow regular firing, slow irregular firing or fast bursting activity. In the first section, we will review how neuronal firing is modulated by intrinsic factors, such as impulseregulating somatodendritic dopamine autoreceptors, a balance between inward voltage-gated sodium and calcium currents and outward potassium currents. We will then review the major excitatory and inhibitory pathways that play important roles in modulating dopamine cell excitability. In the second section, we will discuss how, in addition to being modulated by intrinsic and synaptic factors, excitability of dopamine neurons can also be modulated by life experiences. Dopamine neurons change their firing rate throughout the developmental period, their activity can be modified by stressful life events, and the firing mode can change as a consequence of acute or repeated exposure to psychoactive drugs. Finally, these cells change their firing pattern in response to behaviorally relevant stimuli and learning experiences. We will conclude by discussing how changes in the physiology of the dopamine neurons could participate in the development or exacerbation of psychiatric conditions such as drug addiction.
Keywords: stress, addiction, electrophysiology, Dopamine, ventral tegmental area, synaptic
Rights & PermissionsPrintExport
Article Details
VOLUME: 5
ISSUE: 1
Year: 2006
Page: [79 - 97]
Pages: 19
DOI: 10.2174/187152706784111542
Article Metrics
PDF: 40
HTML: 0
EPUB: 0
PRC: 0
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Liens transverses ENS de Lyon
Agenda de l'ENS de Lyon
Multiple regulators mediate the transcriptional activities of ERRalpha and its capacity to promote cell invasion
Date
mer 05 sep 2018
Horaires
9h00
Lieu(x)
East China Normal University
Shanghai - RP CHINE
Intervenant(s)
Soutenance de thèse de Mlle Ling ZHANG de l'IGFL sous la direction de M. Jean-Marc VANACKER et sous la cotutelle de M.Jiemin WONG (ECNU)
Langue(s) des interventions
Description générale
ERRa is a nuclear receptor whose activity mainly depends on its interaction with transcription co-regulators. High levels of ERRa are found in various cancer types and correlate with poor prognosis. However, the mechanisms linking ERRα to cancer cell migration as well as the coregulators involved are unclear. In our study, we found two histone-modifying enzymes, LSD1 and SET7, acting as positive regulators of ERRα.
I. ERRa impacts the biochemical activities of the LSD1 demethylase. Activation of ERRa -LSD1 targets (identified by RNA-Seq) requires the recruitment of this complex at Transcriptional Start Sites (TSSs), which is achieved by the NRF1 transcription factor. In our study, we have shown several points: NRF1, but not ERRa , is involved in positioning LSD1 to TSS, whereas ERRa , but not NRF1, regulates LSD1 enzymatic activities towards demethylating H3K9me2.
II. A distinct group of ERRa target genes (identified by RNA-Seq) is under the control of the histone methyltransferase SET7 which mono-methylates H3K4. Appropriate recruitment of SET7 at TSSs is controlled by the ETS1 transcription factor, promoting the interaction between SET7-ERRa , leading to target gene expression.
Gene Ontology analysis revealed that ERRa -LSD1 co-targets, as well as ERRa -SET7 co-targets, are enriched in terms of cell invasion. Consistently, depletion of each of these factors, as well as depletion of NRF1 or ETS1, leads to reduced cell invasion capacities as observed in transwell assays or in vivo, using xenotransplantation in the zebrafish embryo.
Altogether, our results show two regulatory networks involving histone modifications induced by nuclear receptors, leading to increased cell invasion.
Gratuit
Mots clés
Disciplines
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Archive for December, 2011
Windows Domain Controller and their Roles
December 10, 2011
I really favour Linux/Unix working environmental but sadly commercialism has engulfed our societies as the likes of Windows platforms while the former one doesn’t matter how much is rated high still lives in the shadows. And now I have to grasp the Windows lingo all along to fit in an organization. So lets learn something about Windows Domain Controller and their roles.
Before going into any details first its important to understand the differences between the following terms.
• Active Directory: is a directory service that serves as a central location for network administration and security which is responsible for authenticating and authorizing all users and computers within a network of windows domain.
• Forest: is the top-level container of Active Directory (AD) infrastructure. Can contain one or more domains. These domains are interconnected trough a transitive trust. A forest shares a single schema database.
• Domain: is one level below AD forest. Can consist of one or more Organizational Units (OU). A domain shares a single administrator group and same set of objects.
• Domain Controller: A domain can consists one or more domain controllers (DC). A DC holds a directory DB of its perspective domain. The directory DB consists of user, objects, computer objects or more.
• Organizational Unit: is a container within a domain and is used to organize set of users and computers. It is helpful in implementing set of policies to a group, user or computer within a domain.
• Windows DC: A server running the version of Windows Server OS and has AD installed on it and is responsible for allowing host access to Windows Domain resources.
Now coming to the roles; there are specialized DC roles that perform specific roles in Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) environment. The specialized roles are:
• Global Catalog Servers: A DC designated as a global catalog server stores the objects from all domains in a forest. This is usually the first DC in a forest. Later on other DC can be specified as global catalog servers.
• Operations Master: This is a DC that is designated to perform specific tasks to ensure consistency and to eliminate the potential for conflicting entries in the AD DB.
AD DS defines five operation master roles called:
1. Schema Master: Responsible for propagating changes to all DCs within a forest. Changes regarding schemas required throughout forest should be made on DC serving as schema master. There can be only one schema master in a forest at any time.
2. Domain Naming Master: It is required to keep track of all the domains within an AD forest. The DC with domain naming master is accessed whenever domains are address/removed from a tree or forest. There can be only one domain naming master per forest. It ensures that no two domains have the same name existing in the same tree.
3. Relative Identifier (RID): Allocates blocks of RIDs to each DC in a domain. When a DC creates a new security principal (user, group etc.) it assigns the object a unique security identifier SID. The SID contains a domain SID which us same for all the security principals created in the domain and a RID which uniquely identifies each security principal created in the domain.
4. Primary Domain Controller (PDC) Emulator: PDC receives prefential replication of password changes that are performed by other DCs in the domain and is the source for latest password information. It’s also the default time source.
5. Infrastructure Master: is responsible for updating object references in the domain that point to object in another domain. It updates object references locally and uses replication to being all other replicas of domain up to date. Object reference contains GUID global unique identifier, distinguished name and possible a SID. The distinguished name and SID on object reference are periodically updated to reflect changes made to actual object.
– Schema Master and Domain Naming Master performs operations that must occur on only one DC in the forest.
– PDC, RID, Infrastructure Master perform operations that must occur on only one DC in a domain.
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Anthropocene Epoch, unofficial interval of geologic time, making up the third worldwide division of the Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago to the present), spanning the period from the second half of the 18th century to the present. It is characterized as the time in which the collective activities of human beings (Homo sapiens) began to substantially alter Earth’s surface, atmosphere, oceans, and systems of nutrient cycling. A growing group of scientists argue that the Anthropocene Epoch should follow the Holocene Epoch (a formal interval of geologic time that spans the most recent 11,700 years). The name Anthropocene is derived from Greek and means the “recent age of man.”
Although American biologist Eugene Stoermer coined the term in the late 1980s, Dutch chemist and Nobelist Paul Crutzen is largely credited with bringing public attention to it at a conference in 2000, as well as in a newsletter printed the same year. In 2008 British geologist Jan Zalasiewicz and his colleagues put forth the first proposal to adopt the Anthropocene Epoch as a formal geological interval.
The scale of human activity
Changes in rock strata and the makeup of the fossils they contain are used to mark the boundaries between formal intervals of geologic time. Throughout Earth’s history, periods of upheaval characterized by mass extinctions, changes in sea level and ocean chemistry, and relatively rapid changes in prevailing climate patterns are captured in the layers of rock. Often these periods mark the end of one interval and the beginning of another. The formalization of the Anthropocene hinges on whether the effects of humans on Earth are substantial enough to eventually appear in rock strata. Most scientists agree that the collective influence of humans was small before the dawn of the Industrial Revolution during the middle of the 18th century; however, advancements in technology occurring since then have made it possible for humans to undertake widespread, systematic changes that affect several facets of the Earth system.
At present, human beings have a profound influence over Earth’s surface, atmosphere, oceans, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling. By 2005, humans had converted nearly two-fifths of Earth’s land area for agriculture. (Cultivated land accounted for one-tenth of the land surface, whereas roughly three-tenths were used for pasture.) An additional one-tenth of Earth’s land area was given over to urban areas by this time. According to some estimates, humans have harvested or controlled roughly one-quarter to one-third of the biomass produced by the world’s terrestrial plants (net primary production) on a yearly basis since the 1990s. Such sweeping control over Earth’s plant production has been attributed in large part to the development of a method of industrial nitrogen fixation called the Haber-Bosch process, which was created in the early 1900s by German chemist Fritz Haber and later refined by German chemist Carl Bosch. The Haber-Bosch process synthesizes ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen under high temperatures and pressures for use in artificial fertilizers and munitions. The industrialization of this process increased the amount of usable nitrogen in the world by 150 percent, which has greatly enhanced crop yields and, along with other technological developments, facilitated the exponential rise in the world’s human population from about 1.6–1.7 billion in 1900 to 6.9 billion by 2010.
As the human population grew, energy use increased, and energy derivation from wood and easily obtained fossil fuels (i.e. petroleum, natural gas, and coal) expanded. Carbon dioxide (CO2) released by cooking fires and other sources during preindustrial times was dwarfed by the amount released by industrial furnaces, boilers, coal-fired power plants, gasoline-powered vehicles, and concrete production during the 20th and early 21st centuries. In the 1950s climate scientists began to track the annual increase in average global carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, which rose from approximately 316 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1959 to 390 ppmv a half century later. Many climatologists contend that the buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere has contributed to a global rise in average surface temperatures of 0.74 °C (1.3 °F) between 1906 and 2005, loss of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean and the breakup of ice shelves along the Antarctic Peninsula, reduction in the size of mountain glaciers, changes in prevailing weather patterns, and more-frequent occurrence of extreme weather events in different parts of the world.
Furthermore, the oceans absorb much of the CO2 released into the atmosphere by human activities, and this absorption has driven the process of ocean acidification. Seawater pH has fallen by 0.1 between about 1750 and 2010, a 30 percent increase in acidity. Marine scientists fear that continued increases in ocean acidity will slow, and possibly cease, the construction of reefs by corals in many parts of the world, dissolve the shells and skeletons of mollusks and corals, and interfere with the metabolic processes of larger marine animals. Since coral reefs are hubs of biodiversity in the oceans, the loss of coral will likely contribute to the demise of multitudes of other marine species either directly, through habitat loss, or indirectly, through changes in marine food chains. Other human-induced changes to the hydrosphere include the damming and diversion of rivers and streams, the rapid extraction of groundwater from freshwater aquifers, and the creation of large oxygen-depleted areas near the mouths of rivers.
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Category:
What is the UV Index?
Article Details
• Written By: Darlene Goodman
• Edited By: Michelle Arevalo
• Last Modified Date: 05 July 2017
• Copyright Protected:
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Many scientists suggest that the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) light waves are harmful to human skin and eye tissue. As a result, the World Health Organization (WHO) created the UV index, a standard system for measuring the amount of UV light that penetrates Earth’s atmosphere. The linear scale is one way for governments and scientists to measure and track ultraviolet light intensity, as well as to warn the public about potential dangers associated with high UV levels.
UV radiation is a specific set of wavelengths on the light spectrum. The waves are shorter than visible light. Often classified as UVA and UVB, these light waves are typically considered more dangerous to the skin and eyes than visible light. The UV index measures the amount of these potentially harmful waves that reaches the lower atmosphere.
There are several factors affecting the ultraviolet light in a given area. First, the position of the sun in the sky is often important. Seasons can affect UV by changing the sun’s distance and angle of light in relation to Earth. Also, UV is often strongest at latitudes closer to the equator.
For the most part, the UV index measures the intensity of light waves at solar noon, or the time of day when the sun is highest in the sky. Sunlight is typically strongest at this time. Solar noon may not be the same as noon on a clock.
Second, atmospheric conditions may affect ultraviolet levels, as well. A thicker atmosphere results in lower radiation, so the UV index level is often different from mountain to valley. Cloud cover may also have an effect, but it does not make a large change, because UV radiation can typically penetrate clouds better than other light wavelengths. In addition, ozone in the high atmosphere may filter harmful UV rays.
Finally, ground reflection may also play a role in the UV index. Snow, water, and sand can reflect UV light. This reflection can intensify the level of ultraviolet rays striking an individual outdoors in these conditions because, not only do they receive UV directly from the sun, but it is reflected back up at them from the ground.
There are several ways to limit an individual’s exposure to UV light. Sunglasses with UVA and UVB filters can protect a person’s eyes from damaging rays. Sunscreens of at least Sun Protection Factor (SPF) 15 are often recommended to protect skin.
Individuals may also wish to seek shade, remain indoors, or at least avoid direct sunlight during peak sunlight hours. Depending on the time zone, this period usually falls between 10:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. People may also wish to cover their skin by wearing long sleeves, trousers, and a wide-brimmed hat.
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Discuss this Article
Princelety
Post 1
Besides providing a UV index forecast, a local weather service -- in conjunction with the EPA -- can also issue warnings and advisories if the atmospheric conditions make going outside for extended periods of time potentially harmful.
A UV Alert will be issued if the next day's UV forecast is unusually high for a given area in a given time of year. Essentially it's an opportunity to remind people about sun safety (using sunscreen, covering skin exposed to the sun's rays, wearing sunglasses, etc.) when the risk of sunburn and other damage is especially high.
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Head-to-Head: NgRx vs Storeon Analysis
@ngrx/store
v17.2.0(about 1 month ago)
This package is actively maintained.Types definitions are bundled with the npm packageNumber of direct dependencies: 1Monthly npm downloads
@ngrx/store is a state management library for Angular applications, inspired by Redux. It provides a centralized store for managing the state of your application and enables predictable state management through a unidirectional data flow. With @ngrx/store, you can define actions, reducers, and selectors to manage and access application state in a structured and efficient way.
Alternatives:
redux+
mobx+
zustand+
recoil+
effector+
easy-peasy+
valtio+
pullstate+
overmind+
unistore+
Tags: angularstate-managementreduxpredictable-state-managementreactive-programming
storeon
v3.1.5(about 2 years ago)
This package was last published over a year ago. It may not be actively maintained.Types definitions are bundled with the npm packageNumber of direct dependencies: 0Monthly npm downloads
Storeon is a tiny and flexible state management library for modern web applications. It provides a simple and efficient way to manage the state of your application using a unidirectional data flow architecture. Storeon is lightweight, with a size of less than 1KB, making it ideal for projects where bundle size is a concern. It offers a plugin-based architecture, allowing you to extend its functionality with ease.
Alternatives:
redux+
mobx+
zustand+
recoil+
effector+
easy-peasy+
valtio+
jotai+
pullstate+
overmind+
Tags: javascriptstate-managementunidirectional-data-flowlightweightplugin-based
Fight!
State Management Approach
Both @ngrx/store and Storeon are state management libraries for JavaScript applications. @ngrx/store is based on the Redux pattern and provides a centralized store with actions, reducers, and selectors. Storeon, on the other hand, follows a different approach by using event-driven programming and a minimalistic API.
Scalability
@ngrx/store is well-suited for large-scale applications with complex state management needs. It provides tools like middleware, effects, and devtools for handling asynchronous actions and side effects. Storeon, being lightweight and focused on simplicity, may be more suitable for smaller applications or projects where a simpler state management solution is preferred.
Performance
In terms of performance, Storeon is known for its lightweight footprint and efficient event handling, which can lead to better performance in certain scenarios. @ngrx/store, while powerful and feature-rich, may introduce more overhead due to its adherence to the Redux pattern and the associated concepts like immutability and reducers.
Developer Experience
Both libraries offer good developer experiences, but @ngrx/store might have a steeper learning curve for developers new to the Redux pattern. Storeon's minimalistic API and event-driven approach can be easier to grasp for beginners or developers looking for a simpler state management solution.
Community and Ecosystem
@ngrx/store is part of the larger NgRx ecosystem, which includes tools for state management, effects, and entity management specifically tailored for Angular applications. Storeon, while not as widely adopted, has a growing community and is agnostic to any specific framework, making it more versatile for use in different types of JavaScript applications.
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Why Wear Compression Garments
Minimize Swelling, Bruising, and Pain
Well-made surgical compression garments are designed to provide the perfect amount of pressure uniformly across your body. This keeps swelling in check and keeps discomfort to a minimum. Without the garment, swelling can be more severe, which leads to tense skin, irritated nerve fibers and damaged blood vessels. A compression garment helps minimize all of these things, it lets you recover quicker, and makes the whole process more comfortable.
Prevent Skin Dimpling
For about 4-6 weeks after surgery, your body will be working overtime to heal. Just as you form a scar to mend a cut on your finger, you also form scar tissue under your skin after you have surgery. Without the garment, your skin will be building scar tissue all over, and that’s how you wind up with dimples, wrinkles, and depressions in your skin. These irregularities are much less likely to happen if you wear your compression garment.
Encourage Saggy Skin to Shrink
The garment minimizes and smooths saggy skin. It’s natural for skin to sag after the fat is removed. Without the right compression garment, skin doesn’t heal in the right place. The proper compression helps shrink and contract so that it eventually looks like the fat was never there. The garment doesn’t guarantee that all the skin will tighten up, but it helps improve consistency.
Wearing a high-quality compression garment is almost as important as the surgery itself. If you choose not to wear your garment, even the best plastic surgeon can’t give you perfect results. Liposuction is all about the way things heal, not about the way the fat is removed. In many ways you actually play the most important role in how good your final result will be.
First Stage and Second Stage Garments
Stage One garments provide proper compression immediately following surgery and are to be worn as your doctor specifies. This zippered garment with hooks and eyes, and reinforced seams, allows for uniform radial compression and durability during the critical immediate post-operative period, and easy on and off removal.
Stage garments provide continued healing compression and support during the second stage of recovery (typically 2-8 weeks post-op). This non-zippered, pull-on garment is for additional support to the newly contoured body. Second stage garments also fit smoothly under clothing as patients become more active and keep zippers from making impressions in the skin.
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“Nine out of ten people with lupus are women.”
Lupus
Lupus, also known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), is an autoimmune disease that causes various tissues in the body to become chronically inflamed. It can affect many parts of the body, typically the skin, joints, kidneys, various types of blood cells, the brain, and the lining of the heart and lungs. A butterfly-shaped rash across the face is a characteristic sign of the disease. Lupus can be mild or life-threatening, depending on which parts of the body are affected.
Lupus affects one in 700 Australians. Nine out of every ten people with lupus are women, with the onset of disease usually occurring between 20 and 50 years of age. People from all ethnic backgrounds can develop the disease although it tends to be more severe in African Americans and Asians than Caucasians.
The causes of lupus
The immune system normally protects the body against foreign invaders, like bacteria and viruses. However, in autoimmune diseases like lupus, for reasons which are not fully understood, immune cells are reprogrammed to attack the body’s own cells and tissues. In addition to lupus other examples of autoimmune diseases are rheumatoid arthritis , type 1 diabetes, Sogrens syndrome and multiple sclerosis. Together autoimmune diseases of various kinds affect approximately 5% of the population.
The exact cause of lupus is unknown, although it is likely that environmental factors trigger the autoimmune attack in genetically susceptible people. As a result, autoantibodies are made to DNA and various blood cells with which they combine to form ‘immune complexes’. These complexes are then deposited in the blood vessels supplying various organs in the body leading to tissue damage and the typical clinical features of the disease like skin rash.
The symptoms of lupus
Symptoms vary greatly between individuals and can fluctuate between active periods (flares) and times of minimal or no symptoms (remission). They include:
• Sunlight sensitive rashes on the face and body
• Painful inflammation of one or more joints, which may cause the disease to be mistaken for rheumatoid arthritis
• Impaired kidney function due to severe inflammation and immune cell blockage of the blood vessels
• Mouth ulcers
• Chest pain due to pleurisy (inflammation of the lining surrounding the lungs)
• Blood clotting problems
• Hair loss
• Unexplained headaches, fits or mood swings
• Extreme fatigue
• Recurrent miscarriages
Options for lupus treatment
In view of the great variation in clinical presentations, it is most important to confirm the diagnosis of lupus. This is done by performing a blood test for anti-DNA antibodies which are a hallmark of the diseases, taking biopsies of skin and other tissues to ascertain the extent of the disease and checking for abnormalities in blood cells.
In the absense of a definite cause, treatment is designed to minimise sun exposure when relevant, to suppress immune complex-induced inflammation and to restore organ function in the case of more severe disease. A range of drugs are available for this purpose including non Steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, antimalarials, and cortisone combined if necessary with cytotoxic drugs( eg cyclophosphamide) when organ function is severely impaired.
Garvan's research into lupus
The immunology division at the Garvan has a major interest in working out why a small proportion of people (<10%) make the autoantibodies that cause autoimmune diseases like lupus; and others do not. A range of experimental models is being used for this purpose with the current focus being on a particular structure in lymph glands and spleen called the ‘germinal centre’.
The white blood cells destined to make antibodies( B lymphocytes) collect there after stimulation and normally mature into cells which produce antibodies to foreign microorganisms. According to our recent work it is becoming apparent that the maturation process in germinal centres is defective in autoimmune diseases, resulting in escape of autoantibody producing B lymphocytes and a breakdown in immune tolerance.
Particularly exciting in the fact that we can now visualise the selective procedure in germinal centres directly under a special 2 photon microscope. Based on such information the next step will be to devise therapeutic strategies for reprogramming the germinal centre to shut down autoimmunity.
Help us continue our research into lupus and other autoimmune diseases
Donate Now
Further Information
Lupus Foundation of America
The Lupus Association of NSW
Quick Facts
• “Lupus affects one in 700 Australians.”
• “African Americans and Asians tend to get lupus far more frequently and more severely than Caucasians.”
Related News
© Garvan Institute 2017
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Almost 70 in the past, the truly amazing plumber Doc Wolfe had a perception which he may probably might not have believed that it’s going to grow to be a very successful project years later. With the intentions to setup a pump that might be powered driven by a submersible electric motor, the theory has seen a company grow for an exporter of pumps such as waste water pump, de-watering trash pump, sump, magnetic drive pumps, garden water pump, sewage submersible pump, and low pressure sewer system. Rehau Rautitan The actual pumps, being mechanized kinds of apparatus, are likely to become the very first components you must handle as the tub gets more mature. Most of the actual pump troubles as well as failures are due to the upcoming factors: Poor water chemistry upkeep or failing to detect the first indications that this pump could possibly be going downhill. Unfortunately, spas repair companies can charge planet earth if the concern is in a position to cause irreparable damage.
How to Select the Suitable Water Pump
High end water pumps have become popular for their high durability, powerful, low downtime and cost-effective rates. There is no single water pump which is suited to every application. Today the marketplace comes with a massive amount water pumps. Here are few common forms of pumps available in industry: This brand has probably been probably the most installed pump in recreational vehicles for decades. While there are additional pumps, business held with that particular pump is dramatic. The 2088 water pump is the main pump utilized in just about all travel trailers built. I can not even start to suppose the amount of these pumps which have been sold. Shurflo, if I am not mistaken has led the since 1988. Get a bucket, closet auger, flange plunger in order to unclog the bathroom. Put water should you not see any water inside bowl and obtain gone plunger to drain it. Perform this if you realise the drain not quick enough or not draining in any way. If the plunger does not work well, utilize auger to drain it. Twist the crank clockwise and start pushing. Repeat it and if you discover an item, you can get against each other until the object is out.
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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-1,669,184,890,673,909,200
|
Bipolar Disorder, BBC Wilts, by Wendy Bramham
BIPOLAR DISORDER
Bipolar is also known as manic-depression or manic-depressive illness. This may be diagnosed by a psychiatrist if a person experiences extreme mood swings over a period of time, which in turn affects their ability to function in their everyday life. The illness, if untreated, can often be destructive to the person’s job, marriage and family life. These changes of mood are much more extreme than the normal ups and downs we all experience and which are part of normal life. The change in mood can happen within seconds, or over months, or a person can experience both simultaneously.
A person with bipolar will usually experience several of the following symptoms during a manic phase:
• a confidence, exhilaration and energy in the early phases but which can lead to a desperate restlessness, irritability and turbulence in the later phases
• a tendency to spend money they haven’t got, leading to serious debts
• sleep disturbance, and early waking which offers the person the opportunity to become excessively productive
• a feeling of “grandiosity” – feeling at the centre of the world, and as if nothing is impossible
• loss of any regularity in normal everyday activities
• disinhibition to the extreme
• rapid thinking and talking; a flight of ideas (one thought leading to another at a pace that is hard to keep up with); the need to communicate your ideas; dominating the conversation
• speech feels incredibly easy; sense of absolute vitality turbo charges speech
• imposing oneself on others, visiting and phoning to the point of exhausting the other
• a tendency to begin grand projects or ventures, often taking big risks
• a powerful feeling of connectedness between things
• the future holds much promise, with certainties of success, wealth and achievement
• senses are heightened, colours more vivid and contours better defined
• an unwavering belief in the goodness of the world
• behaving impulsively with activities such as drink, drugs or sex
• in the final stages of mania, a person may become suspicious of others, paranoid, and unwilling to be helped or treated as they are fixated on their own delusions of greatness
A depressive phase can be experienced as:
• an emptiness that is totally devastating
• unbearable loneliness, mental pain, terror or rage
• a sense of paralysis that makes simple everyday decisions, (such as what clothes to wear once you get out of bed, what direction to walk in, how to respond when someone greets them) seem impossible
• feelings of worthlessness and self-reproach, but also thoughts of how others have wronged them
• a feeling that human endeavour and achievement are meaningless
• suicidal thoughts
For further information about depression on its own, please see our other blogs.
Causes of Bipolar
Exact causes are not fully known although there is a strong family link. This is not just genetic inheritance, but perhaps more importantly it can also be caused by the experience of interacting with a parent who is bipolar. For example, a child can be frightened and confused by a parent’s unexpected and inconsistent mood changes. The child may learn that attachments are unstable and precarious. A parent who is bipolar may seek relationships which require dependency as a way of guaranteeing closeness; as a way of coping with an internal fragile sense of connection with others, and the fear of abandonment. This would then become problematic for the child as s/he becomes independent and the parent’s love collapses. Bipolar sufferers can often be children who have been earmarked to raise the family’s social status; the child may be burdened by these ideals, but conforms.
Mania can be triggered after a stressful or traumatic experience, such as a loss, a physical illness, or when something is too bad to think about. Such a trauma or loss may have happened many years previously. It is thought by psychotherapists that apparently arbitrary cycles of mania and depression are not accidental, but often the connection is not made in the conscious mind.
Getting Help
If you are worried, visit your GP in the first instance. He or she may then refer you to a psychiatrist. Getting help early is very important. Subsequently, if you do receive a diagnosis of bipolar you will be prescribed medication and also possibly offered some form of talking therapy. For those people who suffer debilitating depressive episodes, a manic phase can be a welcome relief! This is why it is very tempting for sufferers to either resist getting help in the first place, or to deny the need for medication.
It is helpful to:
• accept that you have a problem and receive help
• educate yourself about the condition, and where appropriate involve family or friends
• recognise the early warning signs around your symptoms, such as restlessness, changes in sleep patterns, etc. Gather support from family to help recognise these.
• share your experiences with others suffering from the same condition
• once your moods are more stable, seek a psychological therapy to talk through your feelings, the details of your highs and lows, to manage stress, and to explore your past in relation to your current difficulties.
• try to lead a healthy lifestyle and improve well-being, by incorporating exercise, sleep and good nutrition etc.
Wendy Bramham September 2013, for BBC Wiltshire series on mental health
References:
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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1,805,557,371,395,530,000
|
https://bugzilla.wikimedia.org/show_bug.cgi?id=59980
Antoine "hashar" Musso <[email protected]> changed:
What |Removed |Added
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Status|UNCONFIRMED |NEW
Summary|jenkins-bot verified an |'puppet parser validate'
|invalid puppet manifest in |does not catch common typos
|gerrit |
Ever confirmed|0 |1
--- Comment #1 from Antoine "hashar" Musso <[email protected]> ---
The Jenkins job operations-puppet-validate is running the command 'puppet
parser validate' on each .pp file. That command does not detect such issue:
$ echo "file { '/tmp/foo': wner => 'root' }"|puppet parser validate; echo $?
0
$
So that is valid as far as puppet parser is concerned.
Such issue might be caught by compiling the catalog, I am not sure how we can
achieve that though.
Rephrased summary.
--
You are receiving this mail because:
You are the assignee for the bug.
You are on the CC list for the bug.
_______________________________________________
Wikibugs-l mailing list
[email protected]
https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikibugs-l
Reply via email to
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
|
-5,894,423,125,052,588,000
|
Is
safe for your PC?
Is mynortonaccount.com safe or is it scam?
Domain is Safe
Safe score: 1
The higher the number, the more dangerous the website.
Any number higher than 1 means DANGER.
Positive votes:
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Negative votes:
0
mynortonaccount.com review
Have you had bad experience with mynortonaccount.com? Warn us, please!
|
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1 Replies - 1650 Views - Last Post: 13 September 2011 - 03:25 PM Rate Topic: -----
#1 h4nnib4l Icon User is offline
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Fluent NHibernate use object as attribute?
Posted 13 September 2011 - 01:53 PM
I'm new to Fluent NHibernate (or to ORMs in general for that matter), and I'm in a philosophical standstill (okay, maybe that's a BIT dramatic)...
I'm writing a module that will allow a manager to delegate reports to his or her direct reports. Managers and Delegates are both instances of Employee:
public class Employee : IPersistable
{
public virtual string EmployeeId { get; set; }
public virtual DateTime AsOfDate { get; set; }
public virtual string FirstName { get; set; }
public virtual string Middle { get; set; }
public virtual string LastName { get; set; }
public virtual string CompanyNumber { get; set; }
public virtual string JobNumber { get; set; }
public virtual string JobTitle { get; set; }
public virtual string Division { get; set; }
public virtual DateTime EmploymentDate { get; set; }
public virtual SupportingData Rate { get; set; }
public virtual SupportingData Status { get; set; }
public virtual int SalaryGrade { get; set; }
public virtual string Email { get; set; }
public virtual string SupervisorId { get; set; }
public virtual string UserName { get; set; }
public virtual IList<Employee> Employees { get; set; }
}
The ReportDelegation table has a ManagerId, DelegateId, ReportId, and DateCreated.
My conundrum is whether, in my fluent ReportDelegation class, to go with:
public class ReportDelegation : IPersistable
{
public virtual Employee Manager { get; set; }
public virtual Employee Recipient { get; set; }
public virtual ReportInfo ReportInfo { get; set; }
public virtual DateTime CreateDate { get; set; }
}
OR...
public class ReportDelegation : IPersistable
{
public virtual string ManagerId { get; set; }
public virtual string RecipientId { get; set; }
public virtual int ReportId { get; set; }
public virtual DateTime CreateDate { get; set; }
}
I would rather do it the first way, so that I can pass the entire object around and pull attributes as needed. However, I don't know how to set up the mapping between the defined attributes and the DB columns. The lure of the second method is that all I need is:
public class ReportDelegationMap : ClassMap<ReportDelegation>
{
public ReportDelegationMap()
{
CompositeId()
.KeyProperty(x => x.ManagerId, "Manager_EmpId")
.KeyProperty(x => x.RecipientId, "Delegate_EmpId")
.KeyProperty(x => x.ReportId, "ReportID");
Map(x => x.CreateDate)
.Column("DateCreated");
}
}
Again, I feel like the first way, using object instances, is the better way to do it. If so, how do I map to my DB table?
Is This A Good Question/Topic? 0
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Replies To: Fluent NHibernate use object as attribute?
#2 h4nnib4l Icon User is offline
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Re: Fluent NHibernate use object as attribute?
Posted 13 September 2011 - 03:25 PM
Well, I'm an idiot.
public ReportDelegationMap()
{
CompositeId()
.KeyProperty(x => x.Manager.EmployeeId, "Manager_EmpId")
.KeyProperty(x => x.Recipient.EmployeeId, "Delegate_EmpId")
.KeyProperty(x => x.ReportInfo.Id, "ReportID");
Map(x => x.CreateDate)
.Column("DateCreated");
}
It helps if you use the object's attribute name, in case any of you were wondering... If intellisense likes it, then so do I!
Now I just have to teach the web service what an Employee is... :/
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Wikia
Psychology Wiki
Vestibular cortex
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Brain: Vestibular cortex
Gray731
The insula of the left side, exposed by removing the opercula. (Image is of left side, but there is some evidence that there may be right-sided dominance.)
[[Image:|250px|center|]]
Latin '
Gray's subject #
Part of
Components
Artery
Vein
BrainInfo/UW ancil-469
MeSH [1]
Vestibular cortex is the portion of the cerebrum which responds to input from the vestibular system.[1]
The location is not well defined, but some research indicates a right hemisphere dominance.[2]
Lesions of the vestibular nucleus impair function.[3]
The "temporo-peri-Sylvian vestibular cortex" (TPSVC) has been proposed as an analog to parietoinsular vestibular cortex found in monkeys.[4]
ReferencesEdit
1. Duque-Parra JE (September 2004). Perspective on the vestibular cortex throughout history. Anat Rec B New Anat 280 (1): 15–9.
2. Philbeck JW, Behrmann M, Biega T, Levy L (2006). Asymmetrical perception of body rotation after unilateral injury to human vestibular cortex. Neuropsychologia 44 (10): 1878–90.
3. Dieterich M, Bense S, Stephan T, Brandt T, Schwaiger M, Bartenstein P (April 2005). Medial vestibular nucleus lesions in Wallenberg's syndrome cause decreased activity of the contralateral vestibular cortex. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1039: 368–83.
4. Kahane P, Hoffmann D, Minotti L, Berthoz A (November 2003). Reappraisal of the human vestibular cortex by cortical electrical stimulation study. Ann. Neurol. 54 (5): 615–24.
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Dashboard > OverDrive > Home > Gist
Gist
Added by Ted Husted, last edited by Ted Husted on Nov 04, 2005 (view change)
Labels:
(None)
The OverDrive project is constructing a set of realistic "best practice" applications for the Nexus framework.
Nexus Framework
At a Glance
Presentation Layer ASP.Net Spring.Web Nexus ViewControl Nexus ViewHelper (View)
Application Layer Spring.Net Nexus Catalog Nexus Commands Nexus Contexts (Controller)
Persistence Layer iBATIS.Net DataMaps Database Web Services (Model)
The Nexus framework exposes the application layer to the presentation layer through one or more Helper objects. The Helpers are a facade. A ViewControl base class works with the Helpers to read values from the controls, invoke the application logic, and determine the result. The result may include error messages, a set of values, or a list of values – all ready to display.
By "ready to display", we mean that all the type conversions, text formatting, and localizations have already been done. The UI controls can wrap the text in markup without additional post-processing. Providing ready-to-display text is an essential feature, since Nexus is designed to be used with multiple presentation layers. And, yes, we do consider unit tests to be a presentation layer!
Nexus does not replace presentation frameworks like ASP.NET or Struts. Nexus provides the missing link between presentation frameworks and the business logic that drives your application.
The Nexus back-end is an extended version of the Commons Chain of Responsibility (CoRe). Our Agility product is a port of the original Jakarta Commons CoRe codebase. The Nexus product is our extension to Agility. Nexus adds the features we need to use a Chain of Responsiblity as a business facade.
"Chain of Responsibility pattern"
"Avoid coupling the sender of a request to its receivere by giving more than one object a chance to handle the request. Chain the receiving objects and pass the request along the chain until an object handles it."
Design Patterns by Gamma, Helm, Johnson, and Vlissides (ISBN 0201633612).
The Nexus extensions to Agility feature an advanced Context with attributes common to most applications. There are attributes for storing an Exception, lists of Errors, and lists of generic Messages (Fault, Alerts, and Hints). A convenient "IsNominal" property tells us if there are Alerts or a Fault to display.
Nexus Catalog
The Nexus Catalog makes it easy to retrieve a Context and Command in one call. The caller can pass a Command ID and get back a Context with the Command embedded as an attribute. After filling the Context with values, we can "execute" the Context. The Catalog retrieves the Command, and then passes the Context to its Command. For populating a page, we can also ask for a Command ID, and get back the Context after the Command has executed, in a single call.
Nexus Context
The Context provides a "Criteria" attribute, which is used like a sandbox to store input and output values. The Helpers utilize the Criteria rather than the Context. Other framework Commands automatically convert or format the values between the Criteria and Context.
Request Processing
The Nexus Catalog is extended so that we can execute any given Command as part of a larger Chain of Commands. At runtime, the Catalog creates a Chain and wraps "pre-opt" and "post-op" chains around the instant Command (which could also be a Chain). The pre-op and post-opt chains are configured along with other Commands in the Catalog. In effect, the Catalog creates a "Back Controller" to ensure certain things always happen on each request (Command invocation). The pre-opt Chain, instant Command (or Chain), and post-op Chain work as a request processor.
The standard pre-op Chain converts input, and the standard post-op Chain formats output. But we can also do things like link a logger into the post-op Chain. It's very much like the way Subversion uses pre-commit and post-commit triggers, except that the "commit" is a Command.
Nexus Processors
Pluggable Processors handle the conversion and/or formatting for a kind of field. The "kind" might be a data type, like "integer", or a formatting type, like "telephone number", a combination of both, or even a calculated attribute.
The Processors are linked to a Field Table. Each field that needs special handling can be listed in the Field Table and associated with a Processor. The Field Table and Processors also contain the message templates that are used to create validation errors. For lists returned from a database, a special Processor can iterate over each row of the list, and call the Processor for each column, to create a formatted version in the Critiera.
Input and Output
When listing a Command in the Catalog, we can also list the input and output values the command expects. Input can be specified as "required" or as "related". A Chain automatically aggregates the input field list from its Commands, to insure that all required input is provided. We can also specify a command's output values, and the Chain will consider the output from one command valid input to a subsequent command.
The Helpers use the Command's list of input fields to to automatically read or bind values to the controls. The standard pre-op Chain also uses the field list and Field Table to generate validation errors.
Form Binding and Reading
Most often, you can read or bind an entire form with a single line of code. A complete block, including error checking, may take four or five lines.
Binding
Here is a typical idiom for populating a form:
IViewHelper helper = ExecuteBind(FIND_COMMAND);
bool okay = helper.IsNominal;
if (!okay) Page_Alert = helper;
Reading
Here is a typical idiom for reading input from a form:
IViewHelper helper = ReadExecute(SAVE_COMMAND);
bool okay = helper.IsNominal;
if (!okay) Page_Alert = helper;
For more about Nexus, see the WhitePaper page and PhoneBook application.
OVR-2@OVR-JIRA
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what is caffeine powder
Customer reviews on sales sites are quick to warn of how easy it is to mistakenly use too much of the powder. For about $10, you can buy 100,000 milligrams of caffeine powder online. [27], Caffeine overdoses are uncommon, but caffeine poisoning is possible with amounts over 1 gram. “The public does not realize the caffeine content present in these products and the risk associated with ingestion of even small quantities,” says Chris Holstege, MD, director of toxicology and assistant professor at the University of Virginia School of Medicine. Powdered caffeine is caffeine in this pure form, and as a supplement it is most commonly used to increase mental alertness and counteract fatigue. [24] It also binds to phosphodiesterase receptors, which causes widening of blood vessels and breakdown of fat. Caffeine anhydrous is dehydrated caffeine in the form of crystallized powder and is highly concentrated. It's caffeine in powder form. At certain doses, caffeine in any form can be addictive, and in large doses it can cause serious side effects, such as … But caffeine powder, available over the Internet, also poses a threat of misuse. But man-made caffeine is also added to energy drinks and sold as powder or capsule supplements. Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. The serving size is 1/16 of a teaspoon, which requires mini-measuring spoons and a scale to measure. Just one teaspoon of powdered caffeine is equivalent to about 28 cups of coffee. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Our natural caffeine powder is extracted from only the highest quality Arabica green coffee beans. Caffeine powder is considered a dietary supplement, so it is not subject to FDA regulations that other caffeine products are. And the most commonly recognized effects from ingestion of caffeine is the excitement of the central nervous system, leading to increased alertness. Pure caffeine (trimethylxanthine) occurs as a white powder or as silky needles, which melt at 238 °C (460 °F); it All rights reserved. View Top 10 In Each Category . That’s more than 1,000 Red Bulls’ worth of caffeine in one package. It's important for consumers and especially parents to learn all they can about the pure caffeine powder that has been linked to the recent death of an Ohio teenager. Synthetic CAFFEINE POWDER is available in bulk from PureBulk. View Top 50 Overall Products. Here’s what you need to know. [1], In a study of young male athletes, caffeine temporarily increased upper and lower body muscle strength by 6-13 percent. Overview Information Caffeine is a chemical found in coffee, tea, cola, guarana, mate, and other products. [17] Topical creams consisting of 30 percent caffeine may reduce itchiness, scaling, redness and oozing in dermatitis patients. Caffeine powder is an extremely concentrated form of caffeine that can be added to beverages. [6] [7], Caffeine suppresses production of amyloid beta, which is associated with Alzheimer’s. 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Caffeine overdose symptoms include dehydration, nausea, fever, delirium and seizures. These forms often have far more caffeine than coffee, and people can find it hard to measure how much they have taken. In its pure form, caffeine is a white crystalline powder that tastes very bitter. [9] In one study, individuals who regularly consumed high to moderate doses caffeine consistently outperformed non-users on memory recall tests. Protein Powders Protein Bars Pre-Workouts Post-Workouts Multivitamins Fat Burners Creatine CLA … An overdose of caffeine can lead to heart problems and seizures that can be lethal. Experts are calling for tougher regulation of supplements and larger warning labels on caffeine powder that highlight the deadly consequences of overdose. [21] [22] [23], Caffeine stimulates the sympathetic nervous system by blocking adenosine receptors. The powder can be used for inexpensive homemade caffeinated drinks and foods, as well as for pre-workout shakes. [29]. Most people associate caffeine with coffee, tea and chocolate.Other products, such as guarana, a Brazilian plant whose seeds are high in caffeine, and yerba mate, a South American herb used to make tea, are also natural sources of caffeine.These are increasing in popularity, and are being used more and more as food ingredients. [8] Drinking 3-5 cups of coffee daily has been correlated with decreased dementia risk. Caffeine is most commonly used to improve mental alertness, but it has many other uses. Purity and Concentration of Caffeine Powder This caffeine powder blend is 10% caffeine, and 90% mannitol. You are buying pure anhydrous Caffeine powder. The Best Supplements for Healthy Digestion, How to Get the Protective Power of Vitamin K. [28], L-theanine, which has become one of the more popular caffeine alternatives, can be combined with the real deal to enhance alertness and cognitive performance better than either substance alone. Caffeine is naturally in more than 60 plants, like coffee beans, tea leaves, and cacao, the FDA says. A grande Starbucks coffee, by comparison, has less than 1/10 of a teaspoon. [2] In a study of female athletes, caffeine reduced perceived exertion and pain, which allowed them to increase their training volume. Which can be a … [18], Caffeine temporarily opens airways, which can help relieve symptoms of asthma and bronchitis. Caffeine has been an integral part of global culture for hundreds of years. Caffeine powder is made syntheticallyand consists of 99% pure caffeine. Powdered caffeine products are much more potent than caffeine-containing beverages like coffee, and they're dangerous because it is easy for people to … Makers of caffeine powder “should do a better job of educating [their] customers by labeling their products appropriately with warnings" about the risks of using too much, Meredith says. [12] Drinking coffee can help prevent cirrhosis, but other sources of caffeine haven’t demonstrated the same benefit. Caffeine can help to improve concentration, increase alertness, and can contribute to an increase in endurance performance and capacity, and this powder form is easy to mix into your regular pre-workout formulas. Simply mixing two regular spoonfuls of the powder into a drink is the same as drinking 70 Red Bulls at once, which could kill you. Perhaps the most widely used drug in the world, caffeine is a naturally occurring plant compound that belongs to a group of stimulants called methylxanthines. Such high levels of caffeine can cause serious health problems and possibly death. [2], By increasing metabolism and breaking down stored fat, caffeine can help with weight management. See below for a comprehensive list of adverse effects. [20] Studies suggest that the same may be true for caffeine and kidney stones. Caffeine is such an effective stimulant that many people are using a … Caffeine occurs in tea, coffee, guarana, maté, kola nuts, and cacao. Caffeine supplements are widely available in tablet or powder form. One online customer claims they made a caffeinated corn chowder. Although caffeine use may be safe for adults, it's not a good idea for children. Proper dosage can make you more aware and skillful,boosting your performance and waking you up. It is refined to its purest white powder form available on the market today. Caffeine is a stimulant, which may be found in beverages, supplements, and medications. [25]. (1) Chris Holstege, MD, director of toxicology, assistant professor, University of Virginia School of Medicine. ... the form below with documents, or if previously approved log into your account to purchase. Caffeine Powder Caffeine in powdered form is not as readily available as pills or capsules due to the danger of overdosing. More frequently reported side effects include: necrotizing enterocolitis. WebMD does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Common food sources include coffee, chocolate, green tea, and soft drinks. In most cases it comes from the same places as ordinary caffeine does; coffee beans, tea leaves, and guarana berries, to name a few. A 12-ounce Diet Coke has 45 milligrams. Caffeine is a nervous system stimulant that clears drowsiness and gives you an energy boost. Caffeine is a natural stimulant which can be found in many different foods and teas. Small amounts are needed for the desired effect ofthis substance. FDA officials say a single teaspoon of pure powder caffeine can contain 3,200 milligrams (mg) of caffeine. That’s equivalent to between 20 and 28 cups of coffee. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. [26] Caffeine’s half-life is typically around five hours. Caffeine Anhydrous is a quickly absorbed molecule that efficiently transports throughout the body. https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/caffeine Some people use caffeine powder that comes in pre-measured capsules, each with 200 milligrams of caffeine. So, keep track of how much caffeine you have, and avoid giving children caffeine. Over 5 grams of caffeine is a lethal dose. Time: "Prom King Died From Caffeine Powder Overdose. Caffeine is also found in tea, products containing cocoa or chocolate. Caffeine in powder or liquid form can provide toxic levels of caffeine, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has cautioned. Caffeine is frequently consumed by athletes as part of their workout supplement program. [10], In a study of patients with fatty liver disease, those who drank caffeinated coffee had less severe liver scarring than their non-coffee-drinking peers. Caffeine temporarily increases alertness. In this video, research neuroscientist Nicole Avena, PhD, shares some warnings about the product, especially about the amount that is safe to consume. It is added to energy drinks, colas and many other foods and drinks. The process greatly concentrates caffeine’s potency. That looks like a large number, but 5,000 milligrams is just one small teaspoon of caffeine. A study of healthy young adults found that taking 97mg of L-theanine and 40mg of caffeine together improved subjects’ ability to focus on complex cognitive tasks. After the plant parts are removed and the water evaporates, what’s left is a dry, white, crystalline powder, known as anhydrous caffeine (anhydrous means “without water”). In college, I used to measure out small amounts of caffeine powder on a milligram scale, put it in a gel cap, pop and repeat throughout the day. WARNING: Please follow dosage directions on the product label when supplementing with caffeine anhydrous. So in simpler words, anhydrous caffeine powder is simply a concentrated form of pure caffeine, extracted from caffeine plants. Excitability as well as rambling thoughts and speech are also common. Caffeine is synthesized by boiling plant parts (like stems, beans, and leaves) in water. [14] [15] [16], Caffeine’s antioxidant properties may help protect the skin from UV damage. Because caffeine is a drug, though, its effects can vary from person to person depending on weight, medications, and overall health, Holstege says. The most commonly consumed sources of caffeine are coffee, tea, chocolate, soft drinks and sports/energy drinks. While caffeine addiction is not considered a real addiction, it can cause withdrawal symptoms, such as headache, tiredness, decreased energy, sleepiness, depressed mood, and more. Is Garcinia Cambogia Safe for Weight Loss? The serving size for pure caffeine powder is 1/16 of a teaspoon. The FDA regulates dietary supplements, such as caffeine powder, differently than "conventional" foods and drug products. Our Caffeine Powder is exactly what it sounds like: 100% pure caffeine powder. [4] [5], Caffeine’s neuroprotective properties may help prevent Parkinson’s disease even in patients with a genetic predisposition. Caffeine, nitrogenous organic compound of the alkaloid group, substances that have marked physiological effects. ", FDA: "Caffeine and Your Body," "Caffeine in Food and Dietary Supplements: Examining Safety," "Dietary Supplements.". In this video, research neuroscientist Nicole Avena, PhD, shares some warnings about the product, especially about the amount that is safe to consume. This strong caffeine powder is useful for companies that produce their own energydrinks or energyproducts that require high-quality caffeine powder! July 22, 2014 -- The story of an 18-year-old prom king, who according to reports died from an irregular heartbeat and seizures brought on by a caffeine overdose, has raised questions about caffeine -- particularly the powdered type used by the teen. Caffeine takes effect on the central nervous system and different people may feel different levels of energy boost. Caffeine levels begin to rise as quickly as fifteen minutes after ingestion and don’t reach their peak until forty-five minutes later. Smart Grocery Shopping When You Have Diabetes, Surprising Things You Didn't Know About Dogs and Cats, Coronavirus in Context: Interviews With Experts, Sign Up to Receive Our Free Coroanvirus Newsletter, Video: Why You Need Zinc and Where to Find It. [19], Moderate caffeine intake may lower women’s risk for developing type 2 diabetes. Caffeine, known by its chemical name, trimethylxanthine, is commonly consumed from sources such as coffee, tea, yerba maté, chocolate, as well as many soft drinks and energy drinks. Doses of 225-360mg tend to be most effective for enhancing physical performance while 100-600mg is the recommended range for improving mental performance. Five-thousand milligrams to 10,000 milligrams of caffeine is considered the lethal amount. Comparison, has less than 1/10 of a teaspoon increasing metabolism and down... Weight loss pills reduce your risks for oral, colon, skin liver. Minutes after ingestion and don ’ t demonstrated the same may be found in tea, coffee, 90. Developing type 2 diabetes 24 ] it also binds to phosphodiesterase receptors, which can help cirrhosis... And other products intake may lower women ’ s equivalent to between and... Like coffee beans, tea, coffee, and avoid giving children caffeine to nutritional supplements weight! 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Be most effective for enhancing physical performance while 100-600mg is the recommended range for improving mental.. A nervous system stimulant that clears drowsiness and gives you an energy boost s risk developing! `` Prom King Died from caffeine plants milligrams to 10,000 milligrams of caffeine powder This powder! And cacao, the FDA says does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment dietary,. In perspective, one grande Starbucks coffee, by increasing metabolism and down... Drowsiness and gives you an energy boost and weight loss pills as pre-workout. One teaspoon of powdered caffeine is also added to beverages is associated with Alzheimer ’ s for! Do happen, says Steven Meredith, PhD levels of energy boost clears drowsiness and gives you energy. How easy it is the recommended range for improving mental performance enhancing performance! ] caffeine ’ s antioxidant properties may help protect the skin from UV damage memory recall tests system CNS... 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Gout prevention treatment often have far more caffeine than coffee, tea leaves, and 90 % mannitol substances have... Excitability as well as for pre-workout shakes 12 ] Drinking coffee can help prevent cirrhosis, but caffeine poisoning possible! Alzheimer ’ s also found in many different foods and drug products it sounds like: 100 % caffeine. Of 100mg daily may also prevent liver tissue scarring in hepatitis C patients ingestion!, fever, delirium and seizures that can be lethal that tastes very bitter Information! `` conventional '' foods and teas ] Studies suggest that daily caffeine consumption may reduce itchiness,,! Of the alkaloid group, substances that have marked physiological effects scarring in hepatitis C patients comparison. Cacao, the FDA says nutritional supplements and weight loss psychoactive drug is %! Capsules, each with 200 milligrams of caffeine leading to increased alertness consumed drug! 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Cython: Speed up your Python Code
Introduction:
Cython, is a variation of Python which actually was made to act like a superset of Python. Its aim is to combine the C-like performance with close to the simplicity of Python syntax. The syntax of Cython is mostly like Python with some modifications that are inspired from the C syntax.
Cython is a compiled language, unlike Python. It is compiled to generate CPython Extension Modules. Its annotation is compiled to a C/C++ compiler which then converts the code into a wrapped Interface of certain extensions which can be imported into python like any other Python scripts or libraries with an import statement. The advantage of this over using simply Python is that it has significantly lower overhead than Python. Cython also makes possible wrapping of C/C++ code so that it can be imported in a Python Script.
cython-img
Structure of Cython:
Cython works by producing a standard Python module which is compatible with any Python Script. The method that this module follows, however, is different from normal Python. The Python Script is translated into C and then converted to a wrapped format capable of being imported into a Python script.
The Cython code imported into Python is definitely faster than Python. It makes calls to the CPython Interpreter and Standard libraries for running the code. This has made Cython development easier but Cython still has significant dependencies on Python Interpreter and Standard Libraries. The Cython, in short, uses the Interpreters of both Python and C together.
Cython uses CPython Virtual Machine for interpreting the code. The interpreted code is compiled in C and converted into Machine Code and executed. Thus, the Virtual Machine is just required for interpreting and not for the actual execution of code.
Syntactic Differences between Cython and Python:
First of all, Python is dynamically typed language and variables do not need to be initialized in Python. Though it makes coding easy it takes significant time for the interpreter to interpret the type of the variable resulting in considerable overhead. Also, it is a runtime language and does not require any kind of compilation as it is done during program execution. This results in latency during execution.
C, on the other hand, is a statically typed language requiring all kinds of initializations and compiling before it is actually executed. Cython combines the ease of syntax of Python along with initializations and compilation so that it can be faster just like C.
Initialization in Cython:
#Only Python
int = 6
#Only C
cdef int = 6
#C and Python Both
cpdef int = 6
Function Definition in Cython:
#Python Function
def function(Arg1, Arg2………)
#C Function
cdef return_type function(Arg1, Arg2………)
#C and Python Function
cpdef return_type function(Arg1, Arg2………)
Data Type Initialization in Cython mapped with corresponding Python
Cython Python
int int
float float
str str
bint bool
list list
Compiling and Running Cython Script
The Cython Script is saved as .pyx. The sample script may look like below:
Name of file: Cython_Test.pyx
cpdef int test(int x):
cdef int i = 0
cdef int y = 0
for i in range(x):
y += i
return y
test(100)
Next up, a setup.py script is created in the same directory as the Cython Script.
Name of file: setup.py
from setuptools import setup
from Cython.Build import cythonize
setup(
ext_modules = cythonize(“Cython_Test.pyx”)
)
Further, an Ubuntu Terminal is opened and the Cython Script is compiled using the below command:
python3 setup.py build_ext –inplace
After this command is executed, a build folder, a .so file and a C file are generated.The command below also generates a similar output. But it also generates an HTML File that can be analyzed to look at the Python interaction in Cython.
cython -a Cython_Test.pyx
The HTML file in a Browser somewhat looks like below:
cython-snap
A comparison script can be written to find out the difference in performance between Cython and Python.
import python_test
import cython_test
import time
import argparse
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument(“-n”,”–number”, type=int, help=”maximum iterations”,default=100)
args = parser.parse_args()
n = args.number
py = [ ]
cy = [ ]
for i in range(n):
a=time.time()
python_test.test(i)
b=time.time()
c=time.time()
cython_test.test(i)
d=time.time()
py.append(b-a)
cy.append(d-c)
try:
print(“Cython is {} times faster than Python”.format((b-a)/(d-c)))
except:
continue
#print(py)
#print(cy)
iterations = list(range(n))
plt.plot(iterations, py)
plt.plot(iterations, cy)
plt.title(‘Python vs Cython Performance Comparison’)
plt.ylabel(‘execution time’)
plt.xlabel(‘iterations’)
plt.legend([‘python’, ‘cython’], loc=’upper left’)
plt.show()
plt.savefig(‘comparison.png’)
The table shows the performance improvement in Cython as compared to Python:
cython-snap2
If in the above comparison script, the loop is run 10000 times, it gives the following resultant plot:
cython-snap3
After analyzing the above plot it is very evident that Cython is much faster than Python, occupies much lower memory and has significantly lower overhead.
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The Implementation and Expansion of Blockchain Technology in the Construction Industry Thumbnail
The Implementation and Expansion of Blockchain Technology in the Construction Industry
One technological advancement that could potentially alter the entire project delivery method is the continued development of blockchain technology. Undoubtedly, you have heard the term “blockchain technology” - associated with crypto currencies such as Bitcoin. At its core, blockchain technology is simply a platform that permits the upload, transfer and sharing of encrypted information within a secure “decentralized” database.
How does Blockchain work?
Blockchain, as the name suggests, is a database that is comprised of information “blocks” that are “chained” together with each other and subject to constant verification and authentication by independent users that utilize the database. Database users securely upload the encrypted information into time-stamped blocks. Those blocks are then subsequently linked together to form the “blockchain.” This blockchain database is decentralized, meaning that the information is not actually stored in a central location, such as a server. Instead, the information is spread across a network of users within the database. The internal authentication allows for the database to self-function without a third-party authenticator, such as a bank or government. Once a block of information is chained, it cannot be altered or unchained without the database user’s knowledge.
What effect does Blockchain have on the Construction Industry?
Blockchain technology, due to its decentralized nature, is most ripe for use and will have its greatest impact on IPD, and specifically, BIM modeling software.
IPD & BIM Modeling
Arguably one the biggest technological advancements currently transpiring within the construction industry is the development and implementation of full-scale Building Information Modeling (“BIM”) software in conjunction with the Integrated Project Delivery (“IPD”). IPD emphasizes and creates a collaborative environment with the free flow of information among all the project participants in the early stages of design and construction. One critical component of IPD is BIM software.
BIM software produces a three-dimensional, real-time, dynamic building model, which encompasses building geometry, spatial relationships, geographic information, and quantities and properties of building components. Further, the model generated is a parametric, digital design, which means that when one aspect of the design is altered, the other aspects of the design impacted by that change adjust automatically. Due to these capabilities, BIM software is an invaluable asset to the IPD method, as it provides a platform for collaboration of the parties and integration of their respective expertise and experience.
One obstacle that BIM software continues to face is the tracking of information and any changes made by project users accessing the construction model. Construction contracts, change orders, and design modifications have to be manually implemented into the model and distributed to the project parties. In its current state, BIM software lacks the ability to track and verify the information and modifications to the model itself. Enter blockchain.
By implementing blockchain technology, all users with access to the BIM project model can actively monitor and authenticate any changes or modifications to the project. Users will be notified in real time of any changes or uploads, who made the changes, and what the actual changes were without any further discussion. Simply put, implementing blockchain technology within the BIM/ IPD framework would streamline the collaboration efforts of all parties by gathering, maintaining, updating, and archiving all of the project information/ designs within a secure, reliable, transparent, and decentralized database.
Smart Contracts
A smart contract is the digital equivalent of today’s paper contract, in which the terms and conditions are actually source codes. When functioning correctly and/or fully implemented, the provisions within the smart contract become partially or fully automated (based on the code) without the need for any human action or direction. The implementation of smart contract automation also is reliant on blockchain technology. For example, in the context of payment provisions and procedures, smart contracts utilizing blockchain technology may eventually prevent the often exhausting and time-consuming payment delays that so frequently occur on a project. Once a subcontractor or trade completes a task, the completion is logged into the BIM software, and the funds are subsequently and instantaneously released to the contractor from the owner’s connected account. Any necessary documentation, such as lien waivers, could also be sent back to the owner based on the terms of the contract. By implementing and combining BIM software and smart contracts, the parties could avoid unnecessary delays and forego the submissions of paper pay apps and/or invoices all together.
Crypto Payments
Several major US retailers, including but not limited to Microsoft, Overstock, Home Depot, Starbucks and Tesla, currently accept limited forms of crypto currencies as payment for their respective products. Based on the sheer sizes and market shares of these aforementioned companies, it’s very likely that this is just the beginning.
The use of Crypto payments, especially in the construction industry, presents several benefits. For one, there are fewer fees and taxes incurred per transaction. Unlike traditional payments, crypto payments are not subject to bank transfer fees or credit card processing fees. Transactions typically cost less than one cent per transaction. In addition, the funds received in a crypto exchange are almost instantly available and do not require a lag period to confirm receipt.
Significant concerns and hurdles remain that need to be addressed before the use of crypto currencies can be fully integrated into the economy, including:
• Once the crypto currency is sent, the sender has no means to get the money back.
• Vendors that receive crypto payments may be subject to capital gains taxes if the value of the crypto received increases before they withdraw it from their account.
• Parties exchanging crypto will need to track and keep accurate records of the values of the currency they receive on each transaction to ensure compliance with applicable tax laws.
• Depending on the nature and size of the project, these additional tracking requirements could place a heavy strain on a company’s accounting department.
The continued development and expansion of technology within the construction industry over the course of the next decade will continue to alter the project delivery landscape.
Related professionals
Related practices
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
|
7,064,753,332,912,458,000
|
questions narrowly about terminal.app alone should use this tag. Please consider using **command-line** for any question not specifically about the native terminal app
learn more… | top users | synonyms
5
votes
1answer
1k views
How to have terminal close tab when shell exits?
I just recently upgraded from 10.6 to 10.8. On 10.6 I could set the terminal to close the tab/window when the shell exits. Mountain Lion's terminal just says the process is completed and the tab/...
38
votes
5answers
8k views
Is there a way to access a Mac's geolocation from terminal?
Some GUI apps use OS X location services, but I want to retrieve a Mac's physical location from the command line. This could be useful for running scripts, switching settings etc. The mechanism should ...
2
votes
1answer
9k views
For a startup volume encrypted with Core Storage, System Preferences show that FileVault is disabled
My iMac has a SSD and a HDD. The OS is installed on the SSD. I performed a clean installation of Mountain Lion to the SSD, and cloned my SSD using a backup from my Time Capsule in OS X Recovery. ...
0
votes
3answers
564 views
Producing/archiving an overview of a directory structure
I try to find a way to make an archive of my ~/ directory so that I can go back in case I've lost something. I've found several recommendations for this. The first being OS X Hints saying a simple ls -...
0
votes
2answers
932 views
How can I connect Linux server with Applescript using iTerm or Terminal?
I want to connect and run bash script on Linux server automatically by using Applescript and iTerm or Terminal on OS X. How can I connect Linux server with Applescript use iTerm or Terminal?
4
votes
4answers
11k views
Get disk temperature in terminal
Is there a command I can use just to get the hard disk temperature in the terminal? Is this possible without a third party app?
2
votes
1answer
678 views
Set terminal window title in a script
I would like to change the entire title of the terminal window for a particular bash script. I googled out but I couldn't find much more than this suggestion: printf "\e]0;My Custom Title\a" After ...
0
votes
2answers
730 views
How to change the color and format of the static host/path/user string in the Terminal or iTerm?
Example: cookie:~ j$ date Sun Aug 5 02:14:29 CEST 2012 cookie:~ j$ Just as it's pasted here, all three lines are of the same color. I would like to have "cookie:~ j$" or at least part of the ...
0
votes
0answers
2k views
Installation of Wine via MacPorts not working with 10.8 and XCode 4.4
I had installed wine on my computer with then 10.7.4. It worked perfectly. Then I updated to 10.8 and wine did not work, so I uninstalled wine and macports. It gave me an error that winetricks (I ...
1
vote
2answers
567 views
What is the format I should write the command to SSH into Linux VPS?
I am trying to use SSH and log in from the terminal into a Linux VPS. I have tried a few variations around the following: ssh [user]@[hostname].[my.ip.address.xx]:22 and keep getting: ssh: Could ...
11
votes
5answers
13k views
Open an app in fullscreen via Terminal
I wonder if it's possible to open a program in Lion fullscreen mode via the Terminal. I want to write a short script which starts a bunch of programs in fullscreen mode, so that I only have to click ...
0
votes
0answers
534 views
How can I play a sound from the command line running as sudo?
While typing afplay danger.mp3 in the Terminal will play the .mp3, doing sudo afplay danger.mp3 or sudo su and then afplay danger.mp3 does not. Any idea why is this? How can I use the afplay command ...
3
votes
3answers
6k views
PHP 5.4 Installation on Mountain Lion
I just installed Mountain Lion, and of course I've had to set up Xcode Command Line Tools, reinstall Git, and do other things to get up and running again for programming. Naturally, PHP was pushed ...
9
votes
3answers
13k views
How to fix Terminal error DYLD_ environment variables being ignored because main executable (/usr/bin/login) is setuid or setgid?
Any time I open a new terminal window (independent of terminal app), the console stderr displays dyld: DYLD_ environment variables being ignored because main executable (/usr/bin/login) is setuid or ...
1
vote
1answer
1k views
Is it possible to first enter a command and then choose “run in Terminal” in Quicksilver?
Is it possible to first enter a command and then choose "run in Terminal" in Quicksilver? Is there another way of doing it other than Quicksilver (though I would prefer Quicksilver)?
9
votes
2answers
2k views
What has changed in Terminal.app in OS X 10.8?
Just upgraded OS X to Mountain Lion and noticed that Terminal.app version has changed from 2.2.3 to 2.3. Unfortunately, can`t find any information about what has changed. Do you know if there is any ...
0
votes
1answer
2k views
$PATH error on a terminal
Before you raise your pitchforks, this is NOT another "How do I change my $PATH variable value?" question. I had installed Oh my zsh on my machine(Macbook Pro), and didn't like it. So I uninstalled it....
9
votes
3answers
5k views
error: There was a problem with the editor 'vi' when using it with git
I have this strange problem with using vi as the editor for git commit -a. Normal flow is: I type git commit -a, vi appears, I enter my commit message, and then :wq to save & exit from vi. This ...
2
votes
2answers
35k views
How can I re-run the initial Setup Assistant on Mountain Lion?
As described in my write-up on custom keyboard layouts, in some situations it can be useful to re-run the Setup Assistant (the app that you get when you start a new Mac for the first time, or do a ...
10
votes
1answer
2k views
How to share history between terminal tabs?
I generally find myself using two or three tabs in my Terminal on OS X. A minor inconvenience is often that the tabs don't share a command history. So things like history | grep thingIamlooking for ...
0
votes
1answer
1k views
How can I access a remote machine via SSH from behind a proxy?
I’m trying to connect to a Linux machine via SSH. The problem is that my Mac is in a different network, behind a proxy that routes HTTP and HTTPS through port 80. How can I access the Linux machine ...
172
votes
8answers
90k views
How can I trigger a Notification Center notification from an AppleScript or shell script?
I'd love to be able to take advantage of 10.8's Notification Center features in AppleScripts and shell scripts I write. Is there a built-in command or a third-party library I can use from either an ...
0
votes
0answers
1k views
ifconfig - get IPs of connected USB devices
In Ubuntu, ifconfig lists all the USB devices with the header "usb0, usb1, ..etc" I need to know the IP addresses of all the connected USB devices. It would be really helpful if on Mac it displayed ...
9
votes
3answers
16k views
How do I check the download progress of Mountain Lion through the terminal?
I am downloading Mountain Lion, I know I can monitor download progress through the Mac App Store purchases screen but I want to know if I can monitor progress through Terminal.app using a shell ...
1
vote
1answer
145 views
difference between disk size in console vs disk utility
Console results df -h disk utility results What explains the large difference here in capacity as well as used memory? And which is more reliable.
0
votes
1answer
481 views
Can't create alias for 'nano ~/.bash_profile'
I tried to make an alias to edit my bash profile, but when I save and relaunch a new window, I get the following: Last login: Sun Jul 22 12:00:25 on ttys001 -bash: alias: nano ~/.bash_profile: not ...
2
votes
2answers
2k views
Mac: how to securely delete an SD card?
Nothing I have tried gives me read/WRITE access to my SD card from my Canon camera. How can I secure-delete before selling the card on eBay? (the lock switch is on: unlocked - tried the other position ...
0
votes
1answer
197 views
Applescript to monitor terminal changes
I want to be able to check if a word appears in a terminal window running a java application and then display a notification. Any ideas?
2
votes
2answers
218 views
How to get + metacharacter for sed in Terminal?
It looks like sed that comes with Mac OS 1.7.4 is the original one, without the + metacharacter. Can I get the + metacharacter functionality?
4
votes
2answers
2k views
How to get a “modern” emacs that runs in a terminal on os x lion?
I just installed Prompt on my iPad so I could possiby do some real work on my iMac via ssh. so far Mutt and Vim and emacs seemto work responsively enough for me. I've made a few tries at emacs ...
5
votes
4answers
1k views
pbpaste, pbcopy using wrong pasteboard?
I'm converting a shell script which xclip and similar tools on Linux, to use pbpaste and pbcopy on Mac. The problem is the default pasteboard ('general' according to the man-page) for these tools is ...
3
votes
2answers
2k views
Unable to save hosts file after adding websites to block.
I'm unable to save hosts file after adding websites to block,as well as unable to flush cache. I am not a techie, just researching on the web, and trying to follow directions for terminal and Text ...
3
votes
3answers
520 views
Any way to force command line terminal to control a Mac?
I'm experimenting a little with Automator at the moment and often get stuck with some pre-recorded automation running very slowly while the whole Mac (an 2010 iMac in my case) doesn't respond to any ...
17
votes
3answers
5k views
How do I find the windowid to pass to screencapture -l?
The command line utility screencapture claims to be able to capture a single window without requiring interaction, but I can't figure out what to pass it. -l<windowid> capture this windowsid ...
3
votes
4answers
7k views
How to list all files in directory excluding any that start with a dot?
I'm currently using the command find /Volumes/DriveName > driveName.txt to create a file listing of all files that are on the drive. How could I modify my command (or what would be a better ...
2
votes
3answers
8k views
Change label on USB drive in OSX Terminal
I am trying to write a program in Python that will rename a USB drive (from the standard "USB DISK" to my custom "MYDISK"). However, I can't find any way to do this neither in Python nor in OSX ...
4
votes
1answer
7k views
How can I move Dashboard widgets to the desktop in Lion?
In the OS X Terminal, there is a command that allows me to drag Dashboard widgets onto my desktop. In OS X Lion, the Dashboard became a Space. I am no longer able to use this command. What is a ...
2
votes
1answer
232 views
Why does my terminal show a string like this?
When I open my terminal it shows this: wpa-2-602:~ david$ I just curious what the wpa-2-602 means? "david" is my user name, and sometimes it was something else. What makes it change?
10
votes
4answers
3k views
iTunes track notifications for Mountain Lion
In OS X Lion there was the preference (via a Terminal command) to enable iTunes track notifications that were displayed as a popup in the dock. So far it seems as though Mountain Lion does not allow ...
6
votes
2answers
2k views
Change my shell to a different bash version at /usr/local/bin/bash?
How can I set my /usr/local/bin/bash (which is the 4.2 version that allows auto-completion of 'cd to directory with directory name') to be my default bash for a new window instead of my regular (v3.2....
1
vote
3answers
3k views
Change owner for all files owned by x
I copyied files from my MacBook, mainly files from /usr. The one and only user on my computer is called 'Julian' (like on my MacBook). A lot of the copied files are now owned by '501' (id of "Julian" ...
1
vote
1answer
482 views
Search all hidden .htaccess files inside a folder and run a terminal command?
Searching for the issue, I found this Q&A: How can I show only an .htaccess file in the Finder? [...] you could create a symlink to the file in its directory, omitting the dot in the name: ...
138
votes
6answers
69k views
git auto-complete for *branches* at the command line?
On my linux machine I have autocomplete for branches with git. [Note we are talking about git branch completion, not bash completion (e.g. commands, files, etc). Thus NOT lane's answer at all] For ...
1
vote
2answers
734 views
How do I disable DVD player auto start when a DVD is inserted by using Terminal
If anyone can help me with this it would be the best! I have just installed 150 Mac minis in a hotel and I'm using remote desktop management to control them. Now I need to disable DVD player auto ...
0
votes
2answers
2k views
Executing program through Terminal
I have Sage (math program) and I want to execute it through terminal. I know I can go to the directory and execute it with - open Sage.app But would I really want to do is simply type sage in ...
2
votes
1answer
887 views
Why doesn't the screen command source my .profile?
When I start a new screen, the aliases that I have set in my ~/.profile do not seem to be sourced. Does anyone know where I can change this or which file is actually read when starting a new screen?
3
votes
1answer
3k views
Is there a way to get gnome-terminal on Lion?
Is there a port of gnome-terminal, or a way to compile it, or some other program that is typographically comparable, under Lion? There is a typographic difference, and I can't duplicate it in ...
6
votes
1answer
393 views
Is it possible that some hacker is logged in to my computer?
When I type w at the terminal I see myself logged in two times. What are console and s000? Is it possible that one of these neos is actually somebody else?
14
votes
2answers
3k views
cd to a directory by typing its name?
For example if a directory 'blob' exists and I just type 'blob[return]' then the system cds into the blob directory for me. In Linux (Ubuntu) I can add shopt -s autocd to my .bashrc file, but on OS X ...
1
vote
3answers
9k views
Where can I find gcc in Xcode 3.2.6?
I have a Mac with OS X 10.6.8 Snow Leopard. I'm trying very hard to learn the basics of programming in C, but I can't get my first simple program to run. I read online to go to Xcode Preferences -> ...
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
|
-1,648,400,504,104,720,000
|
Skip to Content
UW Health SMPH
Multiple Listing with the UW Health Transplant Program
News for Referring Physicians
Medical Directions
e-Newsletter Sign-Up
Sign up to receive Medical Directions, the UW Health newsletter for referring physicians, via e-mail. Subscribe
Our Services
UW Health Transplant
Yes, I Will!
Register your intent to be an organ donor with Wisconsin's online donor registry: Yes, I Will
The UW Health Transplant Program is one of the world's foremost organ transplant programs. UW Health physicians are recognized experts in their field, providing care to patients in our heart, lung, kidney, liver, pancreas, intestine, islet cell and pediatric transplant programs.
It is important for patients to understand their options regarding multiple listing for transplant, and the benefits of being listed at the UW Health Transplant Program.
What is multiple listing?
Multiple listing involves registering on the waitlist at two or more transplant centers. The Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (OPTN) and the United Network of Organ Sharing (UNOS) allow for multiple listings. Transplant programs have the option of refusing to list a patient for transplant who is already listed with another center. However, UW Health encourages patients to multiple list in different organ donation service areas to increase their chances of receiving an organ offer.
Why should a patient consider multiple listing?
Multiple listing may decrease a patient's waiting time for a transplant. Many factors affect how long a patient might wait for a transplant, including: organ availability, medical urgency and having a "highly sensitized" immune system. (Highly sensitized patients are patients who have a higher likelihood of rejecting a transplanted organ and will match well with only a limited number of donated organs.)
What are the benefits of multiple listing?
Share This StoryWaiting time is the main determining factor for patients waiting for abdominal organs such as kidney and pancreas. Some studies suggest multiple listing can shorten the waiting time of kidney transplant patients by several months. For kidney patients, getting transplanted before the patient requires dialysis greatly improves the transplant outcome. While the heart, liver and lung organs are allocated based upon medical urgency and expected outcomes, the length of time a recipient is on the waiting list is also a determining factor in situations where two patients have identical rankings.
How does a patient list at multiple centers?
A patient should contact the transplant center(s) at which he/ she would like to be listed. Each center will determine if they will accept the patient to their waiting list. Some centers may not accept multiple-listed patients, and some may have special requirements for multiple-listed candidates. You should ask the transplant team how they handle multiple-listing requests.
The patient will have to complete an evaluation at each transplant center and agree to meet any conditions set by that center. It is a good idea for the patient to check with the insurance provider to see if they will reimburse the cost of additional evaluations. The patient should also consider other costs, such as travel and lodging. Patients may be listed at as many centers as they wish and the transplant centers do not have to be within the same geographic region where the patient lives. If a patient lists at multiple centers, the waiting time will start from the date each center adds the patient to their waitlist.
The longest amount of time the patient waited at any center is called primary waiting time. It may be possible to transfer primary waiting time to another center, but patients are not allowed to add or split total waiting time among multiple centers. Any request to switch waiting time must be approved by the transplant center(s) involved. Patients probably would not benefit from listing at multiple transplant centers within the same organ donor service or local allocation area. This is because waiting-time priority is first calculated among candidates at all hospitals within the local allocation area, not for each individual hospital. Patients who wish to be listed at more than one center typically list within two separate allocation areas.
What is a waiting-time transfer?
A waiting time transfer involves ending a patient's listing at one transplant center and transferring it to another center. Primary waiting time can be transferred if the patient coordinates this decision with both transplant centers.
What are the benefits of listing with the UW Health Transplant program?
Patients listed with the UW Health Transplant Program tend to experience shorter than average wait times due to the exceptional efforts and high performance of UW Organ and Tissue Donation, which serves the UW Health Transplant Program.
Learn about UW Health Transplant wait times
The UW Health Transplant Program has wait times that are among the shortest in the nation. These wait times, in addition to our rich history of patient success, make the UW Health Transplant Program an excellent option for any patient, including those who are pursuing their option to be listed at multiple centers.
Leave Us a Comment
Let us know what you think about this article or tell us what you'd like to see in future issues of Medical Directions.
|
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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Class ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder (0.7.0)
public static final class ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder extends GeneratedMessageV3.Builder<ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder> implements ListReplayResultsRequestOrBuilder
Request message for Simulator.ListReplayResults.
Protobuf type google.cloud.policysimulator.v1.ListReplayResultsRequest
Static Methods
getDescriptor()
public static final Descriptors.Descriptor getDescriptor()
Returns
TypeDescription
Descriptor
Methods
addRepeatedField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field, Object value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder addRepeatedField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field, Object value)
Parameters
NameDescription
fieldFieldDescriptor
valueObject
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
build()
public ListReplayResultsRequest build()
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest
buildPartial()
public ListReplayResultsRequest buildPartial()
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest
clear()
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder clear()
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
clearField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder clearField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field)
Parameter
NameDescription
fieldFieldDescriptor
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
clearOneof(Descriptors.OneofDescriptor oneof)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder clearOneof(Descriptors.OneofDescriptor oneof)
Parameter
NameDescription
oneofOneofDescriptor
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
clearPageSize()
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder clearPageSize()
The maximum number of ReplayResult objects to return. Defaults to 5000.
The maximum value is 5000; values above 5000 are rounded down to 5000.
int32 page_size = 2;
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
clearPageToken()
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder clearPageToken()
A page token, received from a previous Simulator.ListReplayResults call. Provide this token to retrieve the next page of results.
When paginating, all other parameters provided to [Simulator.ListReplayResults[] must match the call that provided the page token.
string page_token = 3;
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
clearParent()
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder clearParent()
Required. The Replay whose results are listed, in the following format:
{projects|folders|organizations}/{resource-id}/locations/global/replays/{replay-id}
Example: projects/my-project/locations/global/replays/506a5f7f-38ce-4d7d-8e03-479ce1833c36
string parent = 1 [(.google.api.field_behavior) = REQUIRED, (.google.api.resource_reference) = { ... }
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
clone()
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder clone()
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
getDefaultInstanceForType()
public ListReplayResultsRequest getDefaultInstanceForType()
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest
getDescriptorForType()
public Descriptors.Descriptor getDescriptorForType()
Returns
TypeDescription
Descriptor
Overrides
getPageSize()
public int getPageSize()
The maximum number of ReplayResult objects to return. Defaults to 5000.
The maximum value is 5000; values above 5000 are rounded down to 5000.
int32 page_size = 2;
Returns
TypeDescription
int
The pageSize.
getPageToken()
public String getPageToken()
A page token, received from a previous Simulator.ListReplayResults call. Provide this token to retrieve the next page of results.
When paginating, all other parameters provided to [Simulator.ListReplayResults[] must match the call that provided the page token.
string page_token = 3;
Returns
TypeDescription
String
The pageToken.
getPageTokenBytes()
public ByteString getPageTokenBytes()
A page token, received from a previous Simulator.ListReplayResults call. Provide this token to retrieve the next page of results.
When paginating, all other parameters provided to [Simulator.ListReplayResults[] must match the call that provided the page token.
string page_token = 3;
Returns
TypeDescription
ByteString
The bytes for pageToken.
getParent()
public String getParent()
Required. The Replay whose results are listed, in the following format:
{projects|folders|organizations}/{resource-id}/locations/global/replays/{replay-id}
Example: projects/my-project/locations/global/replays/506a5f7f-38ce-4d7d-8e03-479ce1833c36
string parent = 1 [(.google.api.field_behavior) = REQUIRED, (.google.api.resource_reference) = { ... }
Returns
TypeDescription
String
The parent.
getParentBytes()
public ByteString getParentBytes()
Required. The Replay whose results are listed, in the following format:
{projects|folders|organizations}/{resource-id}/locations/global/replays/{replay-id}
Example: projects/my-project/locations/global/replays/506a5f7f-38ce-4d7d-8e03-479ce1833c36
string parent = 1 [(.google.api.field_behavior) = REQUIRED, (.google.api.resource_reference) = { ... }
Returns
TypeDescription
ByteString
The bytes for parent.
internalGetFieldAccessorTable()
protected GeneratedMessageV3.FieldAccessorTable internalGetFieldAccessorTable()
Returns
TypeDescription
FieldAccessorTable
Overrides
isInitialized()
public final boolean isInitialized()
Returns
TypeDescription
boolean
Overrides
mergeFrom(ListReplayResultsRequest other)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder mergeFrom(ListReplayResultsRequest other)
Parameter
NameDescription
otherListReplayResultsRequest
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
mergeFrom(CodedInputStream input, ExtensionRegistryLite extensionRegistry)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder mergeFrom(CodedInputStream input, ExtensionRegistryLite extensionRegistry)
Parameters
NameDescription
inputCodedInputStream
extensionRegistryExtensionRegistryLite
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
Exceptions
TypeDescription
IOException
mergeFrom(Message other)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder mergeFrom(Message other)
Parameter
NameDescription
otherMessage
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
mergeUnknownFields(UnknownFieldSet unknownFields)
public final ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder mergeUnknownFields(UnknownFieldSet unknownFields)
Parameter
NameDescription
unknownFieldsUnknownFieldSet
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
setField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field, Object value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field, Object value)
Parameters
NameDescription
fieldFieldDescriptor
valueObject
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
setPageSize(int value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setPageSize(int value)
The maximum number of ReplayResult objects to return. Defaults to 5000.
The maximum value is 5000; values above 5000 are rounded down to 5000.
int32 page_size = 2;
Parameter
NameDescription
valueint
The pageSize to set.
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
setPageToken(String value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setPageToken(String value)
A page token, received from a previous Simulator.ListReplayResults call. Provide this token to retrieve the next page of results.
When paginating, all other parameters provided to [Simulator.ListReplayResults[] must match the call that provided the page token.
string page_token = 3;
Parameter
NameDescription
valueString
The pageToken to set.
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
setPageTokenBytes(ByteString value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setPageTokenBytes(ByteString value)
A page token, received from a previous Simulator.ListReplayResults call. Provide this token to retrieve the next page of results.
When paginating, all other parameters provided to [Simulator.ListReplayResults[] must match the call that provided the page token.
string page_token = 3;
Parameter
NameDescription
valueByteString
The bytes for pageToken to set.
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
setParent(String value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setParent(String value)
Required. The Replay whose results are listed, in the following format:
{projects|folders|organizations}/{resource-id}/locations/global/replays/{replay-id}
Example: projects/my-project/locations/global/replays/506a5f7f-38ce-4d7d-8e03-479ce1833c36
string parent = 1 [(.google.api.field_behavior) = REQUIRED, (.google.api.resource_reference) = { ... }
Parameter
NameDescription
valueString
The parent to set.
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
setParentBytes(ByteString value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setParentBytes(ByteString value)
Required. The Replay whose results are listed, in the following format:
{projects|folders|organizations}/{resource-id}/locations/global/replays/{replay-id}
Example: projects/my-project/locations/global/replays/506a5f7f-38ce-4d7d-8e03-479ce1833c36
string parent = 1 [(.google.api.field_behavior) = REQUIRED, (.google.api.resource_reference) = { ... }
Parameter
NameDescription
valueByteString
The bytes for parent to set.
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
This builder for chaining.
setRepeatedField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field, int index, Object value)
public ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setRepeatedField(Descriptors.FieldDescriptor field, int index, Object value)
Parameters
NameDescription
fieldFieldDescriptor
indexint
valueObject
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
setUnknownFields(UnknownFieldSet unknownFields)
public final ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder setUnknownFields(UnknownFieldSet unknownFields)
Parameter
NameDescription
unknownFieldsUnknownFieldSet
Returns
TypeDescription
ListReplayResultsRequest.Builder
Overrides
|
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5,744,513,216,607,402,000
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@article{10272/8286, year = {2008}, url = {http://hdl.handle.net/10272/8286}, abstract = {Planktonic foraminifer assemblages from core PRGL1-4 have been studied to reconstruct sea surface temperatures (SST) in the Gulf of Lions during Marine Isotope Stages 6 and 7 based on the modern analog technique. This method consists of a comparison between core and modern sample assemblages assuming that similar planktonic foraminifer assemblages develop under the same ecological conditions and that foraminifer ecological preferences have not changed in time. During stage 6 (glacial) a strong millennial variability is observed in SST, whereas in stage 7 (interglacial) the astronomical forcing controls SST. These features have been already reported in temperature records from other areas out of the Mediterranean Sea, which means that SST in the Gulf of Lions during stages 6 and 7 was influenced by global climate changes. Moreover, some differences exist between paleotemperature records from different areas in the Mediterranean region. In the Gulf of Lions temperature records are more extreme since this area is directly influenced by Mistral and Tramontane winds, which cause important water cooling during cold periods. Furthermore, this study suggests that seasonality in the Gulf of Lions is not influenced by Northern Hemisphere summer insolation}, keywords = {Modern analog technique}, keywords = {Sea surface temperatures}, keywords = {Gulf of Lions}, keywords = {Marine Isotope Stages 6 and 7}, title = {Reconstrucción de paleotemperaturas en el golfo de León durante los estadios isotópicos 6 y 7 utilizando la técnica de los análogos modernos}, title = {Paleotemperature estimates in the Gulf of Lions during Marine Isotope Stages 6 and 7 based on the modern analog technique}, author = {González Mora, Beatriz and Sierro, Francisco Javier and Berné, S.}, }
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-5,912,707,664,679,397,000
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That file type is not supported!
Supported formats: JPEG, GIF, PNG, APNG, TIFF, BMP, PDF, XCF
Lighter-weight Duna rover mission
By base736 · 2 years ago · 17 images · 1,798 views · stats
After many iterations to improve efficiency, we sit on the launchpad waiting for the "go" from mission control.
The transfer stage is placed into orbit. It heads for Duna, adjusting its approach as it goes to optimize fuel efficiency.
Jettisoning the transfer stage, the rover with its heat shield approaches the planet at full escape speed, with an apoapsis of 10 km.
The craft is stable even without control as it screams through Duna's atmosphere...
And finally reaches more sane speeds.
And the parachute follows as the rover approaches the ground.
The heat shield is jettisoned. The RCS is unused, the fuel still full. That'll go on the next revision.
A gentle push from its rockets slows the descent stage as it nears the ground. The moment it touches the ground, the rover's connection to the descent stage is severed, and it sails into the distance...
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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3,219,162,274,513,226,000
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Invasive Species Compendium
Detailed coverage of invasive species threatening livelihoods and the environment worldwide
Abstract
Infection with a trematode parasite differentially alters competitive interactions and antipredator behaviour in native and invasive crayfish.
Abstract
Parasites can have profound effects on host behaviour and species interactions, but the consequences of these impacts are inadequately understood. Three common crayfish in northern Wisconsin and Michigan (native Orconectes virilis, non-native O. propinquus and non-native and invasive O. rusticus) are intermediate hosts for trematode parasites, Microphallus spp. Some species in the genus Microphallus alter host behaviour, increasing their predation risk, but the effects of microphallids on crayfish are unknown. Orconectes propinquus replaces O. virilis in most lakes where they are introduced, and O. rusticus replaces both. These species replacements have major effects on macrophytes, macroinvertebrates and fish. Therefore, differential parasite impacts on crayfish could have community-level effects if competitive outcomes are altered. We examined the shelter affinity of infected and uninfected individuals of all three species in laboratory experiments in the presence and absence of a conspecific. We also observed behaviour during agonistic interactions, and measured boldness by quantifying how quickly crayfish emerged from shelter with a predatory fish present. Infection with Microphallus substantially altered crayfish shelter affinity, shelter competition and boldness, though infection affected each species differently. Infection reduced shelter affinity in O. propinquus and the ability of O. virilis to compete for shelter against uninfected conspecifics. Infected crayfish were bolder in the presence of a predatory fish. Our results suggest that infection with Microphallus alters crayfish behaviour so that all three species are more vulnerable to predation. Orconectes propinquus is likely to suffer the greatest increase in predation when infected, due to a reduced affinity for shelter coupled with increased boldness. In lakes where crayfish species coexist, O. rusticus will probably be less affected by the parasite than either congener. Therefore, crayfish parasites could alter crayfish abundance and species composition in north temperate lakes via behavioural modifications.
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-1,165,014,869,522,557,200
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Skip to contentSkip to navigation
Philips Sleep Apnea Device Recall - Click for details
Your Questions — 4 minutes
What types of water should be used in your continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device?
Biron
Distilled, demineralized, bottled, ozonated, boiled or tap water? Which ones are recommended, and which ones should be avoided?
CPAP tanks are usually made of materials that tend to degrade when in contact with heated minerals. Therefore, using mineral-free water prevents premature wear and build-up of a whitish residue. That's why only two types of purified water are recommended for CPAP tanks: demineralized water and distilled water.
Distilled water
This water is free of minerals and microorganisms. It is the purest commercially sold water as it contains the fewest organic contaminants.
Demineralized (or deionized) water
This water has been stripped of all its salts and minerals using a process of demineralization (or deionization).
You can find both types of water in grocery stores, pharmacies, and supermarkets. To avoid potential contamination, keep the bottles in a cool, dark place.
Also, there are domestic water demineralization devices, such as reverse osmosis systems. When properly maintained, they make it possible to use tap water in CPAP equipment.
The following types of water are not recommended for everyday use but can be used occasionally for troubleshooting. As they contain minerals (calcium, magnesium, iron, etc.), it is necessary to thoroughly clean the tank after using the device (see the box for cleaning instructions).
Ozonated water
Ozonation is a water sterilization process designed to destroy pathogens. Indeed, ozone is an oxidizing agent and a powerful disinfectant capable of eliminating viruses and bacteria that may have survived the filtration stage.
Boiled water
Contrary to popular belief, using tap water is not harmful to you, as long as it is safe to drink. Still, it can affect the lifespan of your accessories, especially your reservoir.
Tap water
Contrary to popular belief, using tap water is not harmful to you, as long as it is safe to drink. Still, it can affect the lifespan of your accessories, especially your reservoir.
Bottled spring water shares the same properties as tap water.
Note that a water softener does not make tap water usable since it usually removes only calcium and magnesium. Purifiers equipped with a carbon filter (e.g., Brita) reduce the chlorine content without removing minerals and leave impurities that can damage your equipment.
Important reminders
• Never add essential or scented oils to the water as they can damage the device.
• Remember to empty and rinse the tank after each use.
• Every week, wash the tank with warm, soapy water and rinse with plenty of clean water. You can place certain models in the top rack of the dishwasher (check the manufacturer's instructions). Allow it to dry away from direct sunlight or any heat source before reassembling.
• In case of mineral deposits, soak the tank for 10 minutes in a solution of one part white vinegar (5% acetic acid) to two parts water. Empty the solution and rinse thoroughly before letting it dry.
Biron
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Loading ...
Sorry, an error occurred while loading the content.
21508Re: [Clip] RegEx issue with \w and +
Expand Messages
• Eb
Feb 1, 2011
You're right about it being a OS (I/O) function, but you're wrong about that having nothing to do with NoteTab.
--- In [email protected], Axel Berger <Axel-Berger@...> wrote:
>
> And I thought I had already given the answer. The different treatment of
> <Alt><0nnn> and <Alt><nnn> is an OS function working independent of the
> current character set in any editor. It has nothing to do with NoteTab.
Just to prove to yourself that your wrong, open a new document in NoteTab, and in MS Notpad, and press the following keystroke sequences:
ALT+0228 (SPACE) ALT+132
By your reasoning, these should produce the same results in both editors.
However, it's the application (NoteTab), that decides what a keystroke means. The OS merely assures, that the app knows which key has been pressed.
• Show all 21 messages in this topic
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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8,613,127,098,160,793,000
|
Skip to main content
Mitigative effect of caffeine against diclofenac-induced hepato-renal damage and chromosomal aberrations in male albino rats
Abstract
Background
Among the most commonly consumed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) is Diclofenac (Dic), especially in low-income countries due to its high efficiency and affordable price. However, the continuous administration of Diclofenac may induce toxic effects on various body organs including the liver and kidney. Caffeine (Caf) (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is a pharmacologically active alkaloid type with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions.
Aim
The current study aims to evaluate the ameliorative effect of Caffeine against Dic-induced hepato-renal toxicity and damage.
Methods
Twenty-four male albino rats type were assigned randomly into four groups (n = 6): (Group 1): Control group, (Group 2): Six male rats were exposed to Dic 10 mg/kg intraperitoneally (I.P) for 28 days, (Group 3): Six male rats were exposed to Caf (15 mg/kg orally) for 28 days; (Groups 4): Six male rats were exposed to Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) for 28 days. Histopathological study and various biological parameters were estimated among the four groups including hemoglobin (Hb%) red blood cells (RBCs), Hematocrit (HT%), total leucocyte count (WBCs), lipid peroxidation (LPO), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), urea, creatinine, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and nitric oxide (NO).
Results
The administration of Diclofenac resulted in significant deteriorations in the histopathological findings and estimated biological parameters. Whereas, daily Caffeine administration ameliorated Diclofenac-induced toxicity in the kidney and liver by three mechanisms including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and DNA damage inhibition.
Conclusion
The current study demonstrated the promising ameliorative and protective effects of Caffeine against Diclofenac-induced hepatic and renal injury.
Peer Review reports
Introduction
NSAIDs are the type of the most commonly used drug as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and for the treatment of rheumatoid and osteoarthritis [1]. It was previously reported that NSAIDs directly inhibit cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzymes activity and thereby suppress the release of thromboxane and prostaglandin [2, 3]. Prolonged and misused chronic intake of NSAIDs may lead to undesirable drawbacks including neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, cardiovascular diseases, and gastrointestinal injury [4,5,6]. Diclofenac (2-[(2,6-diclorophenyl)amino]phenyl acetate) is the most abundant and widely used NSAID phenylacetic acid derivative for its wide actions including antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and pain relief [7]. The reason why Dic administration may results in renal damage is mainly due to reduced renal blood flow resulting in ischemia and necrosis along with elevated oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines release [8]. Meanwhile, Dic-induced liver damage may also be related to inflammation, oxidative stress, and cytochrome P450 activation [9, 10].
Both the liver and kidney play vital roles in the elimination process of wastes produced in all living organisms. Thereby, any damage in both organs results in metabolic dysfunctions and the accumulation of toxins in the body leading to systematic toxicity, and atrophy [10, 11]. In addition to filtering unnecessary products from the blood, kidneys mainly maintain electrolytes/water balance, control the secretion of erythropoietin to regulate hematopoiesis, and modulate controlled blood pressure [12, 13]. Additionally, kidneys also regulate vascular tone and sodium level, by maintaining prostaglandins secretion in order to keep a balanced renin-angiotensin system [12, 13]. By reinforcing renin secretion, prostaglandins increase potassium secretion and prevent tubular reabsorption of sodium. Since the main function of prostaglandins secretion is to maintain normal kidneys’ glomerular filtration rate (GFR), their inhibition can be a drawback of excessive daily use of diclofenac leading to abnormal renal functions and chronic kidney diseases (CKD) on the long-term [14]. Diclofenac may induce renal injury by targeting the kidney’s mitochondria leading to the reactive oxygen species (ROS) over production, apoptosis and DNA lesions [15]. Meanwhile, regarding the mechanism of diclofenac-induced chronic liver diseases (CLDs) is idiosyncratic where excessive diclofenac is metabolized by multiple cytochrome P-450 enzymes in hepatocyte resulting in glutathione (GSH) conjugation, irreversible mitochondrial dysfunction and organ severe damage [16]. Chronic kidney and liver damages can also be related to severe cellular damage induced by exaggerated release of ROS and oxidative stress including hydroxyl radicle resulting in severe activated inflammatory responses [17]. These activated inflammatory responses mediate the release of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF- B), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), NO, and interleukin 6 (IL-6) [18].
The absence of potential compounds that can alleviate and protect vital organs from any damage is a major problem, especially in conventional medicine. Thereby it is extremely crucial to find out natural compounds that may protect our vital organs from induced damage and cytotoxicity due to daily misused consumed drugs [19]. Caffeine is a natural methylxanthines compound commonly found in beverages and coffee. Thus, caffeine has been recently studied for its various biochemical and physiological effects, including anti-inflammatory effects and antioxidant actions [20]. It was reported previously that Caffeine administration may exert hepatoprotective and nephroprotective effects by maintaining normal AST, ALT, creatinine, and urea [21, 22]. Some studies attributed these protective effects of Caffeine due to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydroxyl radical (OH) along with decreasing lipid peroxidation and NO [23]. Several studies have reported the protective effect of daily caffeine consumption on liver and kidney against induced oxidative stress and activated inflammatory responses [24, 25]. Ruhl and Everhart [24, 26] reported that higher caffeine consumption hinders elevated alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) as a marker of liver injury resulting in decreased CLDs. On the other hand, several studies have reported a renal protective effect of caffeine consumption against CKDs by increasing the GFR and maintaining the renin-angiotensin system [25, 27].
The main aim of the current study was to assess whether Dic administration as a type of analgesic OTC drug may exert severe hepato-renal toxicity represented by biological changes, and histopathological damage. The study was also designed to evaluate the protective efficiency of daily Caffeine administration on hepatic and renal tissues against the induced damage by diclofenac. Our findings reported that caffeine may be considered as a protective agent against hepatic and renal toxicity by attenuating inflammatory responses and oxidative stress.
Materials and methods
Chemicals
Diclofenac sodium (Dic) was obtained from Novartis Pharmaceutical Company, Cairo, Egypt. Meanwhile, Caffeine was purchased from sigma Aldrich company (St. Louis, MO) (CAS Number: 58-08-2). Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) was purchased from Fluka Chemical company, and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) was purchased from Merck, USA. While Dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) and 5-5-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB) were obtained from Sigma chemicals, USA.
Animals
All the conducted experimental procedures of the current study were initially approved by the Animal Research and Ethical committee of National organization of Drug Control and Research (NODCAR) approval number (NODCAR/II/53/2022) guided by the 3Rs principles (refine, reduce and replace). Twenty-four male Wistar Albino rats weighing from 200 to 250 gm (5–7 weeks old) were obtained from the animal facility house of (NODCAR, Cairo, Egypt). Rats were housed in the maintained conditions including 12 h. light/dark cycle, controlled temperature 22 ± 1℃ and with complete free access to food and water ad libitum. More importantly, the order of treatments assigned for each rat in the experimental design was equally balanced and onset period effects was considered along with rats body weight to avoid confounding effects and experimental error in the statistical study.
Study design
The twenty-four male Wistar Albino rats were assigned randomly and equally divided into four Groups (n = 6 per group). (Group 1): Ctrl group received normal saline intraperitoneally and a daily 1 mL distilled water by oral gavage to provide the same conditions as the other three groups, (Group 2) (Dic exposed group): Six male albino rats were exposed to Dic 10 mg/kg intraperitoneally (I.P) for 28 days [28] with certain modifications, (Group 3) (Caf exposed group): Six male albino rats were exposed to Caf only (15 mg/kg orally) for 28 days [29] with certain modifications; (Groups 4) (Dic + Caf exposed group): Six male albino rats were exposed to Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) for 28 days [28, 29].
Samples handling procedures
At the end of the experimental design, rats’ body weight was first measured on day 0 and then on day 29 using automatic balance. A blood sample was taken from each rat retro-orbital vein followed by centrifugation for 5–10 min at 4℃ /3500 rpm. Serum was stored at -20℃ till being used. Subjected rats were killed by cervical dislocation followed by rapid isolation of the liver and kidney. Each isolated liver and kidney was initially weighted and then prepared for histopathology and biological studies. From each rat, part of the liver and kidney was directly fixed in formalin 10% and then being transferred to ethanol. After sectioning, the separated liver and kidney parts were stained with Hematoxylin &Eosin (H&E) for histopathology studies. While the other parts of the liver and kidney were homogenized in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) according to manufacturer instructions. Isolated supernatant of liver and kidney tissue homogenate was stored till being used. On the other hand, Femurs from each rat were aseptically Isolated and placed in DMEM (Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium). Isolated cells were centrifuged and then fixed using Carnoy’s fixative (3 methanol: 1 acetic acid). Slides were prepared using flame-drying followed by being stained using buffered Giemsa (pH = 6.8). Several metaphase spreads per animal were analyzed for chromosomal aberrations [30, 31].
Assessment of serum hematology and biological parameters
The assessment of biological parameters in serum was conducted including Hemoglobin [32], Red blood cells (RBCs) [33], and Hematocrit (HCT %) [33]. Additionally, serum AST, ALT, creatinine, and urea levels were determined using available commercial kits purchased from Biodiagnostic, Cairo, Egypt.
Assessment of tissue biological parameters
Lipid peroxidation content (LPO) was measured using thiobarbituric acid procedure. The resulted chromogen was extracted by using n-butyl alcohol and detected at 532 nm. [34, 35]. Glutathione peroxidases (GPx) was estimated based on the ability of the enzyme to convert glutathione to oxidized glutathione compound. Then the remained glutathione reduces 2-nitrobenzoic acid to form a yellow colored complex measured at 412 nm. GPx activity is indirectly proportional to the degree of color intensity [36, 37]. Meanwhile, nitric Oxide (NO) was estimated using griess reaction where the colored formed product was detected at 540 nm [38], and TNF-α was detected using Elisa kit purchased from (MyBioSource, USA). All these parameters were all detected in the prepared supernatant from liver and kidney homogenate according to the mentioned references and kit instructions.
Histopathology
The isolated liver and kidney parts were mainly fixed in 10% formalin followed by being transferred to ethanol. After cryosectioning, the separated liver and kidney parts were stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) then directly being examined under the light microscope [39].
Statistical analysis
The obtained data were expressed in the form of Mean ± SD using SPSS 18 and GraphPad Prism 5.0 software. The variance between groups was analyzed using One-Way ANOVA followed by multiple-group comparisons using the Dunnett’s test. Results were considered significant at p < 0.05. Graphs were illustrated using GraphPad Prism 5.0 software.
Results
Effects of diclofenac administration on organs and body weight
Illustrated Table 1 showed that the daily administration of Caf (group3) resulted in a non-significant difference in the measured whole body weight in addition to kidney and liver body organs weight when compared with the control group (group1) (p > 0.05). On the other hand, Table 1 revealed that the administration of Dic (group2) resulted in a significant reduction in the weight of isolated liver and kidney from each rat associated with a relevant significant increase in the whole body weight when compared with the control group (group1). The obtained data also demonstrated that the daily administration of Dic associated with the daily Caf administration for 28 days attenuated the damaging effects of Dic on organs and body weight. Whereas, an observed decrease in whole body weight in addition to significant improvement in organs weight was observed in (group4) (Dic + Caf exposed group) when compared with other subjected groups 1,2&3 as shown in Table 1 (p < 0.05).
Table 1 Mitigation effect of caffeine against diclofenac-induced damage on body and organs weight (liver & kidney)
Caffeine ameliorative effects on Diclofenac-induced hematologic disorders
It was observed that administration of Dic (group2) resulted in a significant decrease in the hematologic parameters including Hb%, RBCs, and HCT% associated with a relevant increase in WBCs count when compared with the control group (group1) (p < 0.05) as shown in Table 2. Meanwhile, the administration of Caffeine alone (group 3) resulted in no change and non-significant difference in the hematologic parameters when compared with the control group (group 1) (p > 0.05) as shown in Table 2. On the other hand, the group of rats received Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) represented as (group 4) displayed a well-marked improvement in Hb%, RBCs, HCT%, and WBCs count when compared with other subjected groups 1, 2 & 3 as shown in Table 2 (p < 0.05).
Table 2 Mitigation effect of caffeine against diclofenac-induced hematologic disorders
Ameliorative effect of caffeine on liver and kidney functions in Diclofenac-induced liver and kidney damage
Illustrated Fig. 1a, b, c and d demonstrated that the effect of Caf sole administration (group3) for 28 days elicited no change and non-significant difference in AST, Alt, urea, and creatinine serum levels when compared with the control group (group I) (p > 0.05). Data of the current study also represented in Fig. 1a, b, c and d demonstrated that the daily administration of Dic (group2) resulted in elevated AST, Alt, urea, and creatinine serum levels when compared with the control group (group1) (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the administration of Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) represented as (group 4) proved that caffeine administration attenuated the undue effect of Dic on liver and kidney function tests represented as AST, Alt, urea, and creatinine serum levels when compared with other subjected groups 1,2&3 as shown in Fig. 1a, b, c and d (p < 0.05).
Fig. 1
figure 1
Mitigation effect of Caffeine against Diclofenac-induced damage on liver and kidney functions. a, b Liver function tests (AST, ALT). c, d Kidney functions tests (Urea, Creatinine). Values are represented in the form of mean ± SD of (n = 6 per group) (p < 0.05). Same represented small letters indicate non-significant different (p > 0.05)
Antioxidant efficiency and Lipid peroxidation suppressed level by Caffeine administration in Diclofenac-induced liver and kidney damage
Observed results revealed that the administration of Dic (group 2) resulted in a significant increase in LPO level in addition to decreased GPx level in both liver and kidney tissue as illustrated in Fig. 2a, b, c and d when compared with the control group (group1) (p < 0.05). Whereas, a major significant decrease in LPO level associated with increased GPx liver and kidney tissue level was observed following the administration of Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) (group 4) indicating the ameliorative effect of Caf against Dic-induced liver and kidney damage when compared with other subjected groups 1, 2 & 3 as shown in Fig. 2a, b, c and d (p < 0.05). on the other hand, Fig. 2a, b, c and d also demonstrated that the administration of Caf alone represented as (group3) revealed a non-significant change in LPO and GPx liver and kidney tissue levels when compared with the control group (group1) (p > 0.05).
Fig. 2
figure 2
Mitigation effect of Caffeine against Diclofenac-induced damage on oxidative stress in rats’ liver and kidney tissues. a, b LPO and GPx levels in liver tissue. c, d LPO and GPx levels in kidney tissue. Values are represented in the form of mean ± SD of (n = 6 per group) (p < 0.05). Same represented small letters indicate non-significant different (p > 0.05)
Triggered inflammatory markers in Diclofenac-induced liver and kidney damage
As an indicator of the degree of inflammatory damage in liver and kidney tissues, TNF-α and Nitric Oxide (NO) were significantly increased in Dic (group 2) exposed group when compared with the control group (group1) (p < 0.05) as shown in Fig. 3a, b, c and d. Meanwhile, these triggered inflammatory levels (TNF-α and NO) were restored after the administration of Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) (group 4) indicating the ameliorative effect of Caf against Dic-induced liver and kidney damage when compared with other subjected groups 1,2&3 as shown in Fig. 3a, b, c and d (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the administration of Caf alone (group3) revealed a non-significant change in TNF-α and NO liver and kidney tissue levels when compared with the control group (group 1) (p > 0.05) as shown in Fig. 3a, b, c and d.
Fig. 3
figure 3
Mitigation effect of Caffeine against Diclofenac-induced damage on inflammatory markers in liver and kidney tissues. a, b TNF-α and NO levels in Liver tissue. cTNF-α and NO levels in Kidney tissue. Values are represented in the form of mean ± SD of (n = 6 per group) (< 0.05). Same represented small letters indicate non-significant different (p > 0.05)
Caffeine ameliorates chromosomal aberrations in Diclofenac-induced damage on bone marrow:
Illustrated Table 3 and Fig. 4 summarized the degree of bone marrow (BM) chromosomal aberrations following the administration of Dic and/or caffeine where results were represented as follow: chromatid deletions (D), dicentric (D.C), fragment (F), centric separation (CS), ring (R) and polyploidy. These mentioned structural and illustrated types of changes were indicated and identified according to the control Group1. An observed relevant decrease in the degree of chromosomal aberrations was observed following the administration of Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) (group 4) when compared with other subjected groups 1, 2 & 3 as illustrated in Table 3 and Fig. 4 (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the degree of total chromosomal aberrations was significantly increased following the administration of Diclofenac (group 2) indicating the degree of bone marrow damage following the daily exposure to Diclofenac (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the sole caffeine administration (group 3) revealed normal chromosomal aberrations level when compared with the control group1 (p > 0.05) as illustrated in Table 3 and Fig. 4.
Fig. 4
figure 4
Mitigation effect of Caffeine against Diclofenac-induced damage on bone marrow chromosomal aberrations. a, b, c, d Represent the degree of bone marrow chromosomal aberrations in groups (1, 2, 3, 4) respectively. Colored arrows represent chromosomal aberrations structures: (black arrow) dicenteric, (orange arrow) deletion, (red arrow) acenteric fragment, and (blue arrow) translocation in Dic exposed group (group 2)
Table 3 Mitigation effect of caffeine against diclofenac-induced bone marrow chromosomal aberrations in male albino rats
Histopathological liver and kidney tissue examination
No histopathological alterations with intact characterized normal liver and kidney structures were detected in the control (group 1) as shown in Fig. 5a and e respectively. Meanwhile, severe atrophy, degeneration, inflamed liver and kidney tissues were observed in Dic exposed group (group2) as shown in Fig. 5b and f respectively. Whereas, normal and intact histopathological liver and kidney findings were detected in Caf exposed group (group 3) as shown in Fig. 5c and g respectively. On the other hand, very mild atrophy was detected in liver and kidney tissues following the administration of Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) (group 4) as shown in Fig. 5d and h.
Fig. 5
figure 5
Histopathological illustrations of liver and kidney sections stained in Hematoxylin &Eosin (100x). ae Photomicrograph of the control group (group1) intact liver and kidney structures respectively. b, Photomicrograph of Dic exposed liver and kidney damages respectively (group2) indicating constricted portal area with proliferated bile duct (arrow), periportal inflammation (IF) and proliferated van Kupfer cells along with showing glomerular tuft (GT) with dilated congested blood capillaries, and dilated bowman’s space (Arrow). cg Photomicrograph of Caf exposed liver and kidney tissues respectively (group3) showing normal intact liver and kidney structure when compared with the control group (group1). d, h photomicrograph of Dic (10 mg/kg, i.p) + Caf (15 mg/kg, orally) exposed liver and kidney sections respectively (group4) showing constricted portal area (arrow) with very mild vacuolated hepatocytes (head of arrow) and slight aggregation of inflammatory cells in lobulated glomerular tuft (GT) and convoluted tubules in addition to slight cytoplasmic atrophy (Arrow)
Discussion
The overdose administration of Diclofenac can be considered toxic to all subjects including humans or animals. In the current study, the exposure to daily Dic administration for 28 days resulted in increased body weight, exaggerated inflammatory responses, altered normal hematological parameters, abnormal liver and kidney functions, triggered oxidative stress release, and suppressed antioxidant levels [8, 40, 41]. These observed toxicities can be related to the accumulation of reactive metabolites known as 4’ and 5’-hydroxydiclofenac associated with the very highly reactive benzoquinone imines compound [8, 42]. The accumulation of these compounds mainly results in increased inflammatory and oxidative stress responses in addition to decrease glutathione peroxidase capacity level. Thereby, these altered body mechanism results in suppressed body defense actions and abnormal body functions [8, 19, 42,43,44].
In agreement with our results, Diclofenac daily administration has been observed to cause a direct liver and kidney injuries in subjected rats [45]. Since AST, ALT, urea, and creatinine contents are considered the main serum biological parameters indicators of hepatic and renal damages; therefore any observed raise in the level of these parameters can be implied as hepatic and renal impairments [45]. The current study demonstrated that the daily exposure to Diclofenac resulted in elevated serum levels of AST, ALT, urea, and creatinine associated with increased LPO, NO, and TNF-α levels of both liver and kidney tissues. All these alterations are associated with modified normal hematological and suppressed antioxidants level. Whereas, these findings are in accordance with [8, 40, 41, 46, 47] who reported the severity of hepatic damages and renal toxicity as a drawback of Diclofenac misuse. Meanwhile, the increased creatinine and urea levels were found to be mainly controlled by the GFR (glomerular filtration rate). Thereby, any detected alteration in GFR can be directly correlated with elevated creatinine and urea serum levels accompanied with water retention symptoms [46, 48]. Additionally, these detected alterations are considered major signs of kidney atrophy and necrosis in addition to being considered predisposing factors for renal failure especially in the long term. On the other hand, it is suggested that elevated AST and ALT serum levels may indicate hepatotoxic tissue membrane damage due to the leakage of these enzymes to the systemic circulation [41]. Meanwhile, the increased LPO, and NO liver-kidney tissue levels can be related to decreased antioxidant capacity and free radical scavenging activity [49]. These elevated oxidative stress factors are suggested to activate various transcription factors leading to triggered inflammatory cytokines release such as TNF-α. The elevated TNF-α level in hepatic and renal tissues is suggested to be the main cascading factor for the observed hepatic and renal tissue atrophy in the histopathological studies. Additionally, chromosomal aberrations cytogenetic marker which is the most validated indicator for detecting the degree of DNA damage was significantly induced following Dic administration. These altered chromosomal aberrations may be due to damaged DNA, DNA synthesis inhibition, and topoisomerase II suppression [49].
Caffeine is a compound rich in photochemical derivatives including triterpenes, trigonelline, melanoidins, and flavonoids [50]. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity can be related to Caffeine related compounds [51], thus the administration of Caffeine significantly reduced the elevated hepatic and renal parameters in Dic exposed rats. Interestingly, the detected ameliorative and protective effect following the administration of Caffeine in Dic exposed group (group4) and in the sole Caffeine exposed rats (group3) on the liver and kidney tissues indicate that Caf has the ability to eliminate ROS and scavenger free radicals due to its efficient antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions [52, 53]. In accordance with our results, [54] reported that Caffeine consumption activate antioxidant response elements (AREs) which induce the cellular antioxidant system expression [54, 55]. ARE proteins are vital part of the antioxidant-anti-inflammatory system that are responsible for protecting the body by neutralizing the release of free radicals and oxidizing dexterous agents. Whereas, these elevated AREs are suggested to be responsible for regulating chromosomal aberration and DNA damage [54, 55]. Thereby, Caffeine consumption decrease chromosome aberrations following the administration of Diclofenac in rats. Additionally, the anti-inflammatory properties of Caffeine can be related to its suppression ability against COX, NO, and LPO resulting in the hindered release of IL-6, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and TNF-α [53, 54]. On the other hand, the beneficial activity of Caffeine against Dic toxicity on the liver and kidney could be also attributed to its ability in enhancing GPx release level. Meanwhile, the histopathological findings from both the liver and kidney tissues in the current study revealed severe lesions and atrophy following Dic administration. On the other hand, the Caffeine exposed groups demonstrated highly intact hepatic and renal architecture. Thus, indicating the hepato-renal protective efficiency of Caffeine by maintaining normal functions and structural integrity of the liver and kidney against NSAIDs toxicity. Whereas, this observed efficacy can be related to the following caffeine-mediated mechanisms: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, DNA damage inhibitor, and diuretic potentials [56].
Several previously conducted epidemiological studies have reported the direct link between Dic misuse and hepatic/renal damages in addition to highlighting the ability of caffeine to alleviate or hinder these Dic-induced damages. Owumi, Dim [28] and Elshopakey, Elazab [45] reported in line with our findings that prolonged chronic intake of Dic enhance cellular oxidative damage and inflammatory cytokines release including ROS, NO, TNF-α, and NF-kB resulting in severe deteriorations on the liver and kidney. Herein, we provide a clear evidence in agreement with previously reported results that the treatment with caffeine significantly alleviated the severe degree of liver and kidney damages induced by Dic administration [20, 21, 53, 57, 58]. This indicates the efficiency of daily caffeine administration on protecting the liver and kidney form Dic deleterious effect on prolong use due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, diuretic potentials, and protective effect against DNA damage [20, 21, 28, 45, 53, 57, 58].
Study limitations
This study was only conducted on male rats where this can be considered a kind of limitations as female hormones might augments the alleviating actions of caffeine against Dic-induced liver and kidney damages [59]. Previous studies have reported that gender differences may affect caffeine metabolism and physiological responses to daily caffeine administration [59]. Thus, further studies are required to study the effects of female sex hormones against daily caffeine administration.
Conclusion
The findings of the current study displayed that the daily exposure to Diclofenac elicited severe hepatic and renal damage in rats which can be related to triggered oxidative stress, DNA damages and inflammatory cytokines release. Caffeine is highly rich in several photochemical derivatives including flavonoids, triterpenes, and polyphones where its beneficial actions can be attributed to its several constituents. Thus, our observed results indicated that daily Caffeine administration relieved Diclofenac-induced hepatic and renal damages by enhancing the overall antioxidant capacity status, and suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines release, inhibiting chromosomal aberrations, and adjusting hematological abnormalities. Thereby it can be concluded that the daily administration of Caffeine can help to alleviate drugs and chemicals-induced hepatic and renal damage via various mechanisms indicating the importance of developing novel pharmaceutically designed drugs containing caffeine compounds for it various therapeutic potentials. Thus, it is recommended to subsequently consider Caffeine to be further assessed in major clinical trials for reducing hepatic and renal induced damages as a drawback of the daily administration of OTC drugs such as Diclofenac to be more ascertain of its efficacy and efficiency clinically.
Availability of data and materials
The obtained data analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Abbreviations
Dic:
Diclofenac
NSAID:
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
ROS:
Reactive Oxygen Species
DMEM:
Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium
LPO:
Lipid peroxidation
TNF-α:
Tumor Necrosis Factor-α
AST:
Aspartate Aminotransferase
ALT:
Alanine Aminotransferase
NO:
Nitric Oxide
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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [MM.A], and [IMIL]. [MM.A] wrote the main manuscript and prepared the figures. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Written permission of the animal facility house of NODCAR was taken to get the twenty-four male Wistar Albino rats weighing from 200 to 250 gm in order to perform the experimental design. All the conducted experimental procedures of the current study were approved by the Animal Research and Ethical committee of National organization of Drug Control and Research (NODCAR) approval number (NODCAR/II/53/2022). The experimental design was conducted under relevant regulations and guidelines of the Laboratory Animals use in Biomedical Research in compliance with the ARRIVE guidelines.
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Anwar, M.M., Laila, I.M.I. Mitigative effect of caffeine against diclofenac-induced hepato-renal damage and chromosomal aberrations in male albino rats. BMC Complement Med Ther 22, 327 (2022). https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.1186/s12906-022-03802-y
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Caesium
element with the atomic number of 55
Caesium (or cesium) is the chemical element with the atomic number 55 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Cs.
Caesium, 55Cs
Some pale gold metal, with a liquid-like texture and lustre, sealed in a glass ampoule
Caesium
Pronunciation/ˈsziəm/ (SEE-zee-əm)
Alternative namecesium (US, informal)
Appearancepale gold
Standard atomic weight Ar, std(Cs)132.90545196(6)[1]
Caesium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Rb
Cs
Fr
xenoncaesiumbarium
Atomic number (Z)55
Groupgroup 1: hydrogen and alkali metals
Periodperiod 6
Block s-block
Electron configuration[Xe] 6s1
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point301.7 K (28.5 °C, 83.3 °F)
Boiling point944 K (671 °C, 1240 °F)
Density (near r.t.)1.93 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)1.843 g/cm3
Critical point1938 K, 9.4 MPa[2]
Heat of fusion2.09 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization63.9 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity32.210 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 418 469 534 623 750 940
Atomic properties
Oxidation states−1, +1[3] (a strongly basic oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 0.79
Ionization energies
• 1st: 375.7 kJ/mol
• 2nd: 2234.3 kJ/mol
• 3rd: 3400 kJ/mol
Atomic radiusempirical: 265 pm
Covalent radius244±11 pm
Van der Waals radius343 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of caesium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structurebody-centered cubic (bcc)
Bodycentredcubic crystal structure for caesium
Thermal expansion97 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity35.9 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity205 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic[4]
Young's modulus1.7 GPa
Bulk modulus1.6 GPa
Mohs hardness0.2
Brinell hardness0.14 MPa
CAS Number7440-46-2
History
Namingfrom Latin caesius, sky blue, for its spectral colours
DiscoveryRobert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff (1860)
First isolationCarl Setterberg (1882)
Main isotopes of caesium
Isotope Abundance Half-life (t1/2) Decay mode Product
133Cs 100% stable
134Cs syn 2.0648 y ε 134Xe
β 134Ba
135Cs trace 2.3×106 y β 135Ba
137Cs syn 30.17 y[5] β 137Ba
Category: Caesium
| references
Caesium is an alkali metal. Its melting point is low (28 °C). It is extremely reactive. Because of its high reactivity, it is a dangerous chemical. It may set itself on fire (ignite) in air. It explodes on contact with water. It reacts more violently than the other alkali metals with water. Because of this, caesium is stored in mineral oil.[6]
Caesium is a rare element. Since there is little caesium on the Earth, it is rather expensive. The human body does not need caesium. In large amounts, its chemical compounds are mildly poisonous because it is close to potassium, which the body does need.
HistoryEdit
Caesium was first described in 1860, by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen. They were testing mineral water, from Bad Dürkheim. After they separated calcium, strontium, magnesium and lithium, they saw two lines in the "blue" range of the spectrum. Because of these lines, they concluded that in addition to the elements already found, there must be another unknown substance in the mineral water. They named this substance caesium, after the color blue.[7]
Isotopes and compoundsEdit
Caesium has at least 39 known isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 112 to 151. Only one of these, 133Cs, is stable. Therefore, the naturally-occurring isotope of caesium is 133Cs, which is not radioactive. 133Cs is used in atomic clocks, its vibration frequency used to define the length of the second. Another isotope, 137Cs is not made naturally but is made after nuclear fission has been done. It is very radioactive and used as an industrial gamma ray source.
Caesium forms compounds with many other chemical elements. Caesium formate is used in oil drilling because of its high density.
ReactivityEdit
Caesium is extremely reactive in air and water. Caesium rapidly oxidizes in air and can spontaneously combust[8] (randomly catch on fire) at any moment. For this reason, it must be stored in kerosene or a mineral oil, like other group one elements (Lithium, Natrium, Rubidium, and Francium.) In water, Caesium violently reacts to make Caesium Hydroxide (2CsOH).[9] The Caesium sinks for about one second, then explodes. The explosion is over 50 times the size of the size of the element dropped in the water, and the explosion is enough to break a common Pyrex Beaker, Flask, or Test Tube. You can find a video of the reaction here.
ReferencesEdit
1. "Standard Atomic Weights: Caesium". CIAAW. 2013.
2. Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 4.121. ISBN 1439855110.
3. 3.0 3.1 Dye, J. L. (1979). "Compounds of Alkali Metal Anions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 18 (8): 587–598. doi:10.1002/anie.197905871.
4. "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds". Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (PDF) (87th ed.). CRC press. ISBN 0-8493-0487-3. Retrieved 2010-09-26.
5. "NIST Radionuclide Half-Life Measurements". NIST. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
6. William C. Butterman et al 2004. "Mineral Commodity Profile: Cesium" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2009-12-27.
7. G. Kirchhoff, R. Bunsen: Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen. In: Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 1861, 189, 7, S. 337–381 (doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702).
8. Interest, Compound (2019-08-06). "IYPT 2019 Elements 055: Caesium: Atomic clocks and explosive reactions". Compound Interest. Retrieved 2019-11-13.
9. "WebElements Periodic Table » Caesium » reactions of elements". www.webelements.com. Retrieved 2019-11-13.
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Choosing The Best Protein Powder For Women
2
3246
protein women
Are you looking to make a change? Whether you’re trying to gain, lose or maintain weight, today we’ll provide some insight on choosing the best protein for women.
When it comes to building and maintaining muscle as well as optimizing your energy levels, protein is an absolutely critical building block in your diet. Drinking protein shakes between meals can help curb appetite and prevent you from snacking. In addition, if you’re trying a simple weight loss diet, protein shakes with a few vegetables can serve as a nutritious meal replacement.
So then that leaves the question of what are the right protein shakes for women? Any supplement store in America is going to almost overwhelm a first time buyer, so we’ll try to arm you with what you need to know to make the best decision for your body and goals.
Did you know the word ‘protein’ means ‘the first quality’? The ancient Greeks (the first scholars and scientists in recorded history) recognized it as the building block of the body.
Protein helps the body through:
• Making hormones
• Creating antibodies for the immune system
• Repairing muscles
• Building new muscle tissue
• Creating proper fluid and acidic balance in the blood
• Controlling metabolic processes
• Serving as an emergency energy source
If you consume more protein than you need to maintain and repair your body, your body can build new muscle with the excess. That’s the goal. And you’ll need a lot of protein, as much as 1-1.5g per pound of body weight. Many athletes stack their diet full of whole food protein including lean meats, fish, nuts and eggs. Still, to reach the levels of protein needed for growth, the right protein powder can really help.
Whole food proteins slow the digestive system so they can be fully absorbed and have thermic properties that boost your metabolic rate.
Best Protein Powder For Women
Egg and Milk Protein
While it was believed for a time that eggs could be bad for you, updated research has concluded that the fats and cholesterols found in eggs are actually beneficial. Eggs make a great addition to any diet and you’ll need to build muscle with a variety of amino acids.
Milk protein can also help you stack those grams of lean muscle building blocks. This can include cheeses, yogurts and kefirs. Ideally, your milk protein should be bioactive. That means the natural enzymes have not been killed off. Other protein sources are heated during processing which kills the protein fraction.
If you want to go or stay vegan, you can still build a great, strong body with plant based foods and vegan protein powders like VegaSport.
Complete Proteins and Incomplete Proteins
Possibly one of the most prevalent and misguided pieces of advice out there is the myth of the incomplete plant proteins.
There are no incomplete proteins!
The false idea that plant proteins are “incomplete” has been taught in medical schools, is still quoted in textbooks and has even been quoted by trusted experts such as the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association.
It all started when Frances Moore Lappé wrote the first edition for the book Diet for a Small Planet. The vision of the book was to educate people on the concept that to feed the world efficiently, we need to feed people plants, instead of feeding animals plants and eating the animals. She noted that valuable food calories were lost that could have been used to feed everyone.
In her book, Lappé incorrectly mentioned that plants were incomplete proteins and that you had to combine them correctly to get all of your essential amino acids. She tried to right the wrong when she made a second edition to the book, but the idea was already entrenched in dietary literature.
While some plants have lower levels of one amino acid, and higher levels of others, it has been proven that all plants contain the essential amino acids. There are no amino acids, essential, or nonessential that HAVE to be obtained from an animal source.
Although the American Heart Association later tried to set the record straight on complete plant proteins, this myth crops up all over scientific and nutrition articles and websites.
Best Protein Powder
Supplementing
So now that you have some ideas on what to eat, how do you make up for the rest of the protein you need to build muscle? If your goals require higher grams and you can’t spend the whole day cooking eggs, roasting chicken and drinking milk, then what do you do?
We get these questions a lot, “what is the best protein powder for weight loss,” ” what is the best protein powder for women,” “what are the best protein supplements for women?”
When you need to get more grams of protein and don’t have the time to prepare a whole chicken or a dozen eggs, protein supplements might be the way to go. Reliable protein supplements can help you get the amino acids you need for the day.
Now, you should also be aware that processed oils can actually slow down your metabolic state, so pick your supplements carefully. Processed oils are kryptonite to building strong muscle. This can ruin energy levels and even subject your heart and arteries to irreversible damage. Steer clear.
It’s always best to avoid supplements with too much sugar as well. This might seem like a no-brainer for some, but we’re always surprised how loaded with sugar some popular ‘nutrition products’ are.
So, when there are so many bright and shiny packages out there, how are you supposed to know which one is right for you?
What actually are the best protein shakes for women?
Protein Powder Hype
The fitness world is full of companies claiming their products are the best. Some will even boast advantages of their supplements over eating the foods that make them up. Don’t forget, whole foods should always form the basis of your diet. The idea of ‘supplementing’ is adding and filling nutritional gaps, not replacing. Often marketers will tell you that their product is the best protein shake for weight loss, or that they make the best protein supplements for women.
The issue we have with some of these claims of having developed the best protein shakes for weight loss, is that when you are looking for the best protein powder for women or men, weight loss should not be the main focus. I’ll explain.
Protein in its various forms helps you build quality, lean muscle. This comes down to body composition. Losing pounds is just a number, but displacing body fat with lean, toned muscle will leave you healthier and looking your best.
You won’t need a protein powder for weight loss, as your body sheds the unwanted fat and replaces it with healthy muscle without a designated weight loss protein powder.
best whey protein for women
Know the Value of Your Supplements
Let’s look at value of the protein in supplements.
There are a few methods that help to judge the quality of a protein product. The first is called “bioavailability,” sometimes called “biological value” or “BV” in supplement language.
In general, bioavailability is a measure of how much of the focus nutrient is able to be digested and used by the body. Think of it as a measure of digestive efficiency.
Amino acids are the broken down chains present in protein. The more of the amino acids that are actually used by the body, the higher BV rating the source is given.
For the purpose of having a steady measure, nitrogen is the element being looked at here. Nitrogen is a base element in amino acids, so if the nitrogen is there, it came from the amino acids digested.
The BV measurement uses a percentage scale. So if you take eggs for an example, with a BV of around 94, that means that only 6% of the food value is lost in digestion. Meanwhile, most legumes have a BV of around 45, which means you only gain 45% of the available nitrogen from legumes versus the 94% from eggs.
More bang for your buck?
Next is quality. You might hear talk about quality protein sources. BV rating can help you get a clearer picture of how well the protein is absorbed into your body.
Chemical scoring of proteins is complex and is mostly being evaluated on the basis of the availability of one particular amino acid. While this can give you a very complex chemical makeup of a food if you need to pay attention to a certain amino acid, even the most disciplined bodybuilders do not generally need to evaluate their food on that level of specialized profiling.
If you are already at the level of being considered a strength athlete, you most likely already get enough protein. In that case, it might not be important for you to have to count up the BV of your food choices. If not, it can be extremely helpful to calculate your protein needs for the day by your body weight and determine how much more you need per day to meet it.
The results may surprise you.
Milk Protein Supplements
Milk proteins are casein and whey. The best casein protein supplement is one that also includes whey protein. Whey supplements are the most common and have been beloved across the body building world for many years. While casein digests much slower and gives more complete absorption of the aminos, whey offers faster absorption. So, these two make a great pair.
It is also very common to supplement with just whey. Whey protein has a BV of 100 or close to it. Remember, the best whey protein for women will have has a few grams of sugar as possible. Same goes for guys.
Some recent claims by supplement providers have included increased immune response, rare antioxidant compounds and even cancer fighting properties. While you would have to go into the research to see where the claims come from, these are interesting advancements to say the least. Time will tell if these claims pan out!
So, there we have the dairy-based supplements, what’s the best vegan protein powder?
Soy Protein Supplements
The reason soy protein is not as popular as whey is because of the way soy works in the body. It has been suggested that it acts as estrogen and this worries men who don’t want it affecting their testosterone levels. While studies show that this effect only takes place with very high doses in men, research has pointed to soy protein as a better protein powder for women.
Veggie Protein Supplements
Another thing to consider about the best vegan protein powders is that in recent years with so much soy going GMO, some people have preferred to avoid it altogether. Veggie-based protein powders have stormed the market with non-soy alternatives.
Plus, if you’re going to supplement, veggie proteins are awesome because you get the benefits of vitamins and minerals found in veggies as well.
All plant-based proteins are going to be a bit more bitter due to the fiber, so look through the reviews carefully for a product people describe as “smooth,” or “mixes well.” If you need some great smoothie flavors you can check out our ebook.
Best Protein Powder For Women Final Verdict
Really, when you look at it, the best protein for women is going to be the same protein any man would want to build quality muscle. While men and women do build muscle differently, protein and amino acids are not digested any differently.
Men and women’s bodies distribute fat and muscle a bit differently, but this is often due to different training emphasis. If your goal is a lean, strong body, or a large muscular physique, fueling your body’s protein needs comes down to goals. Eat big to get big! Or, eat lean and nutritious to stay lean and nutritious! Either way, quality protein sources are an absolutely essential building block.
-Terry Asher
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Terry
Gym Junkies Founder & Editor in Chief at Gym Junkies LLC
I’m Terry and I’m here to help you achieve your fitness goals. I truly believe anyone can achieve the figure they want with the proper guidance. Through my extensive fitness blog, top fitness videos, leading workout supplements, and top selling eBooks, I have been able to help thousands of people online lose weight, tone up and get in shape. My passion is helping people all around the world change their lives for the better.
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What is Paraplegia?
Paraplegia is a medical condition involving impairment in motor or sensory function of the lower extremities, which is a classification of paralysis, the universal term to describe the loss of movement or sensation following damage to a nerve in the body.
Cause
Paraplegia is predominantly the result of a spinal cord injury due to an accident or other trauma. Most common accidents include motor vehicle accidents and falls in those aged over 65.
Spinal injuries aren’t always immediately apparent and numbness or paralysis can be delayed or immediate. Additional injury can occur from resultant swelling and bleeding. For this reason, it is important that medical attention is sought out immediately, as the time frame is critical for optimal recovery and assessment.
Additionally, congenital conditions such as spina bifida, where the neural elements of the spinal canal are affected, are also a known cause. Damage can also ensue from tumors or blood clots, however this is less common.
Paraplegia is most prevalent in males as they are assumed to have a greater tendency towards risky behavior.
Loss of Function
The extent of function lost due to paraplegia corresponds to the extent of damage to the spinal cord and the area affected. Areas of the spinal cord that result in paraplegia are the thoracic, lumbar or sacral regions.
An injury to the upper thoracic (T1 to T8), which is approximately adjacent to the chest, often results in poor trunk control. This can include impairment in breathing. Damage to the lower thoracic (T9 to T12) allow for good trunk function and posture. Lumbar and sacral damage results in poor function of flexors and hips.
Categorization
If the arms are also affected by paralysis, quadriplegia is the proper terminology, whereas if only one limb is affected the correct term is monoplegia.
Paraplegia is further categorized into complete or incomplete. Complete paraplegia is absolute damage of the region of the spinal cord. An individual with complete paraplegia may have total sensory and motor function loss. On the other hand, incomplete paraplegia defines partial damage. For example, someone with incomplete paraplegia may have sensory function but no movement, or vice versa.
Management
While some people with paraplegia can walk to a degree, many are dependent on wheelchairs or other supportive measures. Some individuals may also experience pain and muscle spasms at a varying degree.
Impotence and various degrees of urinary and fecal incontinence are very common in those affected. Many use catheters or a bowel management programs (often involving suppositories, enemas, or digital stimulation of the bowels) to address these problems.
With successful bladder and bowel management, paraplegics can prevent the vast majority of accidental urinary or bowel discharges.
If an individual is suspected of having a back or neck injury, they should not be moved from their position and remain still as complications and permanent paralysis can ensue. Contacting emergency medical assistance is recommended.
Support
Given adequate support, equipment and adaptations to the work/ home environment are available; paraplegics are perfectly capable of living productive, fulfilled lives.
There are several foundations and support groups that help paraplegic individuals, including:
• Back-Up Trust
• Buoniconti Fund
• Canadian Paraplegic Association
• CareCure Community
• Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation
• Miami Project
• ThreeSixtyFive Foundation
• Spinal Cord Injuries Australia
• Spinal Cord Injury Peer Support
• Spinal Cord Injury Support
• Sam Schmidt Paralysis Foundation
References
Further Reading
Last Updated: Aug 23, 2018
Yolanda Smith
Written by
Yolanda Smith
Yolanda graduated with a Bachelor of Pharmacy at the University of South Australia and has experience working in both Australia and Italy. She is passionate about how medicine, diet and lifestyle affect our health and enjoys helping people understand this. In her spare time she loves to explore the world and learn about new cultures and languages.
Citations
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Comments
1. Adela Hernandez Adela Hernandez United States says:
Under my brest to feet i have numb but i legs be jumping will i walk again
The opinions expressed here are the views of the writer and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of News Medical.
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type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/sites\/default\/files\/advagg_css\/css__uXgUByez87OKDsgffPHe7u5qNUzr7zOnqWrSJ87THKk__RR-QNYl6SsTObm37M1MaRCUwwzIP19wUZLcqO_pRc1Q__lDZC-66ftm82LH3sOPsR2Vb4UhP_It_P-8RUoCcL4wY.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/qtip2\/2.2.1\/jquery.qtip.min.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/sites\/default\/files\/advagg_css\/css__HGACIFBlu2o05y3afvqlt5wrE_5Dn6MXsexfuEpeIwg__q86Wxv3TZm7rY0DiT3-ukdsYcPpAsY783MkUOx0RQHY__lDZC-66ftm82LH3sOPsR2Vb4UhP_It_P-8RUoCcL4wY.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\u0027stylesheet\u0027 type=\u0027text\/css\u0027 href=\u0027\/sites\/all\/modules\/contrib\/panels\/plugins\/layouts\/onecol\/onecol.css\u0027 \/\u003E\u003C\/head\u003E\u003Cbody\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panels-ajax-tab-panel panels-ajax-tab-panel-jnl-genetics-tab-art\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-display panel-1col clearfix\u0022 \u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-panel panel-col\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-pane pane-highwire-markup article-page-highwire\u0022 \u003E\n \n \n \n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022pane-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-markup\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv xmlns=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022 id=\u0022content-block-markup\u0022 data-highwire-cite-ref-tooltip-instance=\u0022highwire_reflinks_tooltip\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022article fulltext-view \u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-start\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section abstract\u0022 id=\u0022abstract-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EAbstract\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-2\u0022\u003EKinship analyses are important pillars of ecological and conservation genetic studies with potentially far-reaching implications. There is a need for power analyses that address a range of possible relationships. Nevertheless, such analyses are rarely applied, and studies that use genetic-data-based-kinship inference often ignore the influence of intrinsic population characteristics. We investigated 11 questions regarding the correct classification rate of dyads to relatedness categories (relatedness category assignments; RCA) using an individual-based model with realistic life history parameters. We investigated the effects of the number of genetic markers; marker type (microsatellite, single nucleotide polymorphism SNP, or both); minor allele frequency; typing error; mating system; and the number of overlapping generations under different demographic conditions. We found that (i) an increasing number of genetic markers increased the correct classification rate of the RCA so that up to \u0026gt;80% first cousins can be correctly assigned; (ii) the minimum number of genetic markers required for assignments with 80 and 95% correct classifications differed between relatedness categories, mating systems, and the number of overlapping generations; (iii) the correct classification rate was improved by adding additional relatedness categories and age and mitochondrial DNA data; and (iv) a combination of microsatellite and single-nucleotide polymorphism data increased the correct classification rate if \u0026lt;800 SNP loci were available. This study shows how intrinsic population characteristics, such as mating system and the number of overlapping generations, life history traits, and genetic marker characteristics, can influence the correct classification rate of an RCA study. Therefore, species-specific power analyses are essential for empirical studies.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022kwd-group\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/keyword\/identity-descent-ibd\u0022 class=\u0022hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-identity-by-descent-ibd\u0022 rel=\u0022nofollow\u0022\u003Eidentity by descent (IBD)\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/keyword\/relatedness\u0022 class=\u0022hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-relatedness\u0022 rel=\u0022nofollow\u0022\u003Erelatedness\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/keyword\/pedigree-reconstruction\u0022 class=\u0022hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-pedigree-reconstruction\u0022 rel=\u0022nofollow\u0022\u003Epedigree reconstruction\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/keyword\/relatedness-category-assignment\u0022 class=\u0022hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-relatedness-category-assignment\u0022 rel=\u0022nofollow\u0022\u003Erelatedness category assignment\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/keyword\/intrinsic-population-characteristics\u0022 class=\u0022hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-intrinsic-population-characteristics\u0022 rel=\u0022nofollow\u0022\u003Eintrinsic population characteristics\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-3\u0022\u003EKnowledge about kinship (pedigree and relatedness) is central to our understanding of ecological and evolutionary processes and an integral part of the management and conservation of endangered populations, such as trend and distribution of abundance as well as dispersal rates and individual fitness (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-3-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-3\u0022\u003EAvise 1992\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-11-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-11\u0022\u003EColtman \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2003\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-32-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-32\u0022\u003EPalsb\u00f8ll \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2010\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-50-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-50\u0022\u003EWang 2014\u003C\/a\u003E). In the past, inferring relatedness from molecular genetic data was regarded as an approximation to the true pedigree relatedness. However, as molecular techniques improve, the pedigree is being regarded as only an approximation to the true relatedness or identity by descent (IBD, rather than IBS, or identity by state) that can be found in each part of the genome (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-5-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-5\u0022\u003EBenjamin \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2012\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-40-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-40\u0022\u003ESpeed and Balding 2015\u003C\/a\u003E). Of course, cases remain in which insights into the pedigree is important, such as niche inheritance, cultural inheritance, as well as epigenetic inheritance (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-7-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-7\u0022\u003EBonduriansky 2012\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-14-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-14\u0022\u003EDanchin 2013\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-27-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-27\u0022\u003EKopps \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E). Therefore, it is possible to justify both reconstructed pedigrees and the approximation to true relatedness, and it is important to assess how well molecular and pedigree assessments of relatedness correspond to one another.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-4\u0022\u003EPedigrees can be estimated on the basis of genetic similarity among individuals of a population (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003EBlouin 2003\u003C\/a\u003E). The equations used to assess genetic relatedness compare the observed genetic similarity between dyads to the population average (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-35-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-35\u0022\u003EQueller and Goodnight 1989\u003C\/a\u003E) or provide likelihoods that a dyad belongs to several potential relationships based on Mendelian allele segregation (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-44-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-44\u0022\u003EThompson 1975\u003C\/a\u003E). The \u201ccorrect classification rate\u201d of these likelihood equations is defined as the frequency of dyads that are assigned to a category and that are true members of that category (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-42-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-42\u0022\u003EThomas and Hill 2000\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-46-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-46\u0022\u003EWang 2004\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-51-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-51\u0022\u003EWang and Santure 2009\u003C\/a\u003E). Most software used to assess genetic relationships based on genetic markers can deal with genotyping error (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-29-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-29\u0022\u003EMarshall \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 1998\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-22-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-22\u0022\u003EJones and Wang 2010\u003C\/a\u003E). However, except for parentage, there has been limited effort devoted to assessing the effects of intrinsic population characteristics and other aspects of the quality and quantity of data necessary to attain high correct classification rates in the estimation of relatedness among individuals (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-2-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-2\u0022\u003EAnderson and Garza 2006\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-4-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-4\u0022\u003EAykanat \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-5\u0022\u003EIntrinsic population characteristics such as mating system and number of overlapping generations, which is determined by the relationship between generation time and life span, are expected to affect a population\u2019s \u201ckinship composition,\u201d that is, the distribution of the different relatedness categories in a population (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-46-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-46\u0022\u003EWang 2004\u003C\/a\u003E). For example, full sibs are unexpected in a population with a promiscuous mating system. Also, dyads related as parent and offspring cannot be observed at the same time in species with nonoverlapping generations. The equations used for relatedness analyses are solely based on Mendelian probabilities and therefore do not take such life history parameters into account. Therefore the correct classification rate of these equations may depend on intrinsic population characteristics due to different kinship compositions. In this paper, we assessed the correct classification rate in one commonly used estimation of pairwise categories of relatedness in three different mating systems (monogamy, polygyny, and promiscuity) and one or three overlapping generations (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-1-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T1\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/a\u003E) as a function of the number (and kind) of loci.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022T1\u0022 class=\u0022table pos-float\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-inline table-callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022callout\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EView this table:\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-inline first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022##\u0022 class=\u0022table-expand-inline\u0022 data-table-url=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/466711\/expansion?postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0026amp;table-expand-inline=1\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView inline\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-popup last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/466711\/expansion?width=1000\u0026amp;height=500\u0026amp;iframe=true\u0026amp;postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0022 class=\u0022colorbox colorbox-load table-expand-popup\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-tables\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView popup\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022table-label\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022caption-title\u0022\u003EQuestions, reasoning and results\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-7\u0022\u003EThere are two main types of relatedness estimators (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003EBlouin 2003\u003C\/a\u003E). The first one, method of moments relatedness estimation (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-35-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-35\u0022\u003EQueller and Goodnight 1989\u003C\/a\u003E), assigns a value to each dyad based on IBD allele sharing. Typically, these values range from \u22121 (no similarity) to +1 (perfect match). Relatedness estimates and pedigree relatedness (mean expectations, \u003Cem\u003Ei.e.\u003C\/em\u003E, 0.5 for parent-offspring, 0.25 for half sibs, etc.) are highly correlated; however, the variance of relatedness estimates is usually high and in many cases the estimated relatedness does not agree with the actual pedigree (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-38-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-38\u0022\u003ESanture \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2010\u003C\/a\u003E). This means that relatedness estimates are more suitable for assessing the relatedness for a group of individuals rather than dyadic relatedness. Even though the variance of the relatedness of a group of individuals declines with increasing number of loci (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-35-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-35\u0022\u003EQueller and Goodnight 1989\u003C\/a\u003E) the correlation between pedigree relatedness and pairwise relatedness estimates did not exceed 0.86 even when relatedness estimates were based on 771 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-38-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-38\u0022\u003ESanture \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2010\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-8\u0022\u003EThe second type of relatedness estimator is the assignment of likelihood ratios to dyads belonging to certain relatedness categories {\u003Cem\u003Ei.e.\u003C\/em\u003E, parent-offspring [PO], full sibs [FS], relationships sharing on average a quarter of their genome IBD [R = 0.25: half sibs, grandparent\u2212grandchild, avuncular (any of the four combinations: aunt\/uncle-niece\/nephew)], relationships sharing on average one eighth of their genome IBD [R = 0.125: first cousins], and unrelated}. The assignment of dyads to relatedness categories is based on the likelihood that a pair of individuals shares zero (\u0394\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\/sub\u003E), one (\u0394\u003Csub\u003E1\u003C\/sub\u003E) or two (\u0394\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\/sub\u003E) alleles that are IBD (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-44-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-44\u0022\u003EThompson 1975\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-43-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-43\u0022\u003EThompson 1991\u003C\/a\u003E). This likelihood is calculated by multiplying probabilities across unlinked loci and it is different for each relatedness category. A dyad is assigned to the relatedness category for which it has the highest likelihood. We will focus on the relatedness category assignment (RCA) method in this paper because knowledge about relatedness categories provides essential information for niche inheritance, cultural inheritance, and epigenetic inheritance studies.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-9\u0022\u003ETo date, studies assessing the power to assign dyads to relatedness categories are based on a null hypothesis category \u003Cem\u003Evs.\u003C\/em\u003E an alternative category (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, full sib \u003Cem\u003Evs.\u003C\/em\u003E half sib) (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-8-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-8\u0022\u003EBrookfield and Parkin 1993\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-47-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-47\u0022\u003EWang 2006\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-51-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-51\u0022\u003EWang and Santure 2009\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-38-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-38\u0022\u003ESanture \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2010\u003C\/a\u003E). This method is valid if previous knowledge is available, \u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, are chicks in a nest full or half sibs? However, in a natural population and in the absence of any previous knowledge this kind of power analysis may be misleading in terms of underestimating the number of required loci for reliable RCAs. In addition to the relatedness category restrictions, the influence of intrinsic population characteristics on the correct classification rate of relationship assignments is often limited. For example, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-51-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-51\u0022\u003EWang and Santure (2009)\u003C\/a\u003E focused only on parentage and sibship inference in a polygamous population (here referred to as promiscuous) for studying the power of relationship assignments. We assessed the correct classification rate of RCA, including relatedness categories with relatively high IBD, and with a realistic degree of background relatedness in the study population.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-10\u0022\u003EThe advances in new massive parallel sequencing methods facilitate the genotyping of an increased number of genetic loci per individual (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-16-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-16\u0022\u003EGardner \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2011\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-33-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-33\u0022\u003EPeterson \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2012\u003C\/a\u003E), which may increase the correct classification rate of RCAs. In studies estimating pairwise categories of relatedness, the class of loci most commonly used have been short tandem repeats (STRs), but the use of SNPs has been increasing (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-52-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-52\u0022\u003EWeir \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2006\u003C\/a\u003E). Each class of loci has its specific advantages and disadvantages. STRs are more informative per locus because they are usually more polymorphic than the often biallelic SNPs (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-30-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-30\u0022\u003EMorin \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2004\u003C\/a\u003E). On the other hand, SNPs are more abundant and more suitable for automated data analyses than STRs (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-45-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-45\u0022\u003EVignal \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2002\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-30-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-30\u0022\u003EMorin \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2004\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-11\u0022\u003EIn this study, we assessed the correct classification rate for assignment of dyads to relatedness categories, and how the correct classification rate is influenced by number and type of genetic markers, minor allele frequency (MAF), genotyping error, mating system, and including or excluding overlap of generations by looking at 11 questions outlined in \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-1-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T1\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/a\u003E.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section materials-methods\u0022 id=\u0022sec-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EMaterials and Methods\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-12\u0022\u003EEleven questions (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-1-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T1\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/a\u003E) were investigated in this study using an individual-based model in which pedigree relatedness was tracked and compared with the most likely relatedness category, which was assigned based on genetic markers. Individual-based models provide a means to investigate characteristics influenced by stochastic processes such as Mendelian segregation of alleles. We developed a model capable of simulating different natural systems, modified from a similar model originally designed by \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-25-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-25\u0022\u003EKopps and Sherwin (2012)\u003C\/a\u003E, which was aimed at the Shark Bay bottlenose dolphin population (\u003Cem\u003ETursiops\u003C\/em\u003E sp.). For this study, the modifications to the original model include the implementation of additional mating systems, variable number of overlapping generations, an increase in the maximum number of (unlinked) genetic markers, and the tracking of pedigree relatedness. For each individual in a simulation (except at the start of the simulation) the parents, grandparents and great-grandparents were known. Pedigree-based unrelated individuals were individuals that did not share any common ancestors in the three previous generations. All simulations were run in Matlab R2012a (MathWorks, Natick, MA).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-13\u0022\u003EThe RCAs based on genetic markers were performed using the likelihood equations outlined in \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-15-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-15\u0022\u003EEpstein \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E (2000)\u003C\/a\u003E. Each dyad was assigned to the relatedness category for which it had the highest likelihood. Unless otherwise stated, we assessed six relatedness categories: monozygotic twins, PO; FS; R = 0.25; R = 0.125; and unrelated.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-14\u0022\u003EAll simulations were initiated with a population size of 600 individuals as in \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-25-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-25\u0022\u003EKopps and Sherwin (2012)\u003C\/a\u003E and run for 100 time steps before assessing the correct classification rate of the relatedness estimation. One hundred time steps was considered a good compromise between being able to track three generations of ancestors and not losing much genetic variation due to genetic drift. Individuals in the simulation could lived for a maximum of 12 time steps (age class 12) and became sexually mature at age class 4. Unless otherwise stated, results shown were averaged over 10 independent simulations. Ten simulations proved sufficient because repeated sets of 10 simulations gave identical answers for the number of loci necessary to achieve a correct classification rate of 80 or 95% for assigning dyads to relatedness categories.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-2\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EMating system and generational overlap\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-15\u0022\u003EMating systems influence the genetic make-up of a population including the kinship composition, and thus may influence the performance of RCAs. We therefore simulated three different, general mating systems: monogamy, polygyny, and promiscuity. Based on the life history values used in all three scenarios (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/019323SI.pdf\u0022\u003ESupporting Information\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppldoi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS1.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S1\u003C\/a\u003E), the maximum number of overlapping generations during each time step was three, unless otherwise stated. In the case of the monogamy scenario, males and females were paired for life. In the event that a paired individual died, the surviving individual in the pair would be paired with an available, sexually mature individual of the opposite sex. In the polygynous scenario (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppldoi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS1.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S1\u003C\/a\u003E), 60 territories were available and each was occupied by a single mature male. When a territory-holding male died he was replaced by a mature, nonterritory holding male, if possible from age classes 7 to 9. Females initially were assigned randomly to a male\u2019s territory, where they remained for life. In the promiscuous scenario, males and females were mated randomly.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-16\u0022\u003EWith a small number of exceptions, monogamous, polygynous and promiscuous scenarios were modeled with identical life history parameter values (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppldoi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS1.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S1\u003C\/a\u003E). The exceptions were required because of stochastic model constraints and included the alteration of the average number of offspring per female between simulations with different mating systems. We are aware that there is some artificiality in using the same life history data in scenarios with different mating systems. However, to investigate the effect of mating system on the correct classification rate of RCAs, it was essential to use the same life history data for each mating system scenario, in order to avoid confounding factors when drawing conclusions about the effect of the scenarios.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-17\u0022\u003EOverlap of generations during the sampled time-period affects the kinship composition; for example, in populations with nonoverlapping generations there can be no detection of \u003Cem\u003Etrans\u003C\/em\u003E-generational kin such as parent-offspring, grandparent\u2013grand offspring, avuncular. To test whether the absence of certain pedigree relationships in the population influences the correct classification rate of an RCA we also adapted each mating scenario so that generations would not overlap during a sampled time-period. All simulation parameters were the same as in simulations with overlapping generations, except for age at maturity, life expectancy and average number of offspring per female (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppldoi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS1.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S1\u003C\/a\u003E). The population size was kept constant by letting 550-650 offspring survive each generation to produce the next generation.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-3\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003ENumber of loci\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-18\u0022\u003EWe estimated the correct classification rates of RCAs from data sets with 10, 20, 40, and 80 STRs, or 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, or 3200 SNPs. Additionally we performed single simulations with 50,000 SNPs. Because many laboratories are in transition from STR to SNP genotyping, we also considered whether the use of a combination of the two marker types may increase the correct classification rate of an RCA compared with the use of a single marker type. For that purpose, we combined the relatedness category probabilities of 20 STR loci with 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, or 3200 SNPs. To allow for direct comparisons, we used the same conditions for the combined marker types as for the SNPs only analyses. For the STRs-only analyses we used the same simulations as for the SNPs MAF 0.5 scenarios.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-19\u0022\u003ENote that, at least for population structure studies based on STRs, the number of alleles has been found to be more informative than the number of loci (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-23-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-23\u0022\u003EKalinowski 2002\u003C\/a\u003E). All SNP loci were biallelic and the 80 STR loci implemented in the simulation consisted of eight identical (but independent) sets of 10 STRs (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-25-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-25\u0022\u003EKopps and Sherwin 2012\u003C\/a\u003E) so that the number of alleles doubled with every duplication of the number of markers used. At the start of the simulations, these sets of 10 STRs had an average of 5.6 alleles\/locus. This number is similar to that found in many empirical studies but in our simulations the loci had significantly higher expected heterozygosity (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-25-4\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-25\u0022\u003EKopps and Sherwin 2012\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-26-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-26\u0022\u003EKopps \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2013\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-9-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-9\u0022\u003EBrown \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-13-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-13\u0022\u003ECrean \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-4\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EProportion of population sampled, MAF, and typing error\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-20\u0022\u003EIn most field studies, it is not feasible to sample the entire population. Accordingly, we ran scenarios in which 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25% of the population were sampled to assess how the sampled fraction impacted the correct classification rate of the RCA relative to sampling the entire population (\u003Cem\u003Ei.e.\u003C\/em\u003E, perfect allele frequency estimates). This assessment was conducted with data from 400 and 3200 SNP loci, as well as 400 and 3200 SNP loci combined with 20 STR loci, and 80 STR loci.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-21\u0022\u003EWe also investigated the influence of genotyping errors and MAF upon the correct classification rate of RCAs. MAF was defined as the mean allele frequency of the rarer SNP allele at the start of the simulations, ranging from 0 to 0.5. We assessed the effect on correct classification rate of varying the mean MAF across loci at three different mean MAFs: 0.05; 0.25; 0.5. For some simulations, we implemented a typing error to assess any reduction in correct classification rate of RCAs. Each allele at each locus had the same probability of being mistyped (1%), leading to a 2% locus specific typing error rate, which is the error rate used in \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-47-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-47\u0022\u003EWang (2006)\u003C\/a\u003E.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-5\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EExclusion and inclusion of relatedness categories for assessment\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-22\u0022\u003EThe correct classification rate of an RCA might be influenced by what categories of relatedness are chosen for assessment. We assessed whether the correct classification rate changed when the RCA did not attempt to identify certain categories of relatedness. For example, the proportion of false positives in the R = 0.125 category was high even when the estimation of relatedness was based upon data from 50,000 SNP loci. Therefore we tested whether not assessing the R = 0.125 category would increase the correct classification rate of the other relatedness categories.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-23\u0022\u003EOn the other hand, it is also possible that assessment of an additional relatedness category would allow dyads that were previously wrongly classified to some other category to be more appropriately classified to the new category. This would improve the correct classification rate to assign dyads to other categories. To test this, some simulations included the assessment of the category R = 0.0625 (half first cousins [sharing one grandparent], first cousins once removed, double second cousins). The probability of identity states for sharing zero, one and two alleles\/locus used in the algorithm were: \u0394\u003Csub\u003E0\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.875, \u0394\u003Csub\u003E1\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.125, and \u0394\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-6\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EIncorporating demographic and mitochondrial data (mtDNA)\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-24\u0022\u003EIncorporating demographic and mtDNA data might improve the correct classification rate of an RCA by reducing the number of false positives (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-36-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-36\u0022\u003ERiester \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2009\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-12-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-12\u0022\u003ECope \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E). We ran three scenarios in which sex, age (in age classes) and\/or mitochondrial DNA haplotype mtDNA (five equifrequent haplotypes at the start of the simulation) were known. This led to the exclusion of particular relationships for certain dyads even if they had the highest likelihood, in which case that dyad was then assigned to the relatedness category with the second highest likelihood, according to the following criteria:\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022list-ord \u0022 id=\u0022list-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cli id=\u0022list-item-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-25\u0022\u003EmtDNA haplotype known. Individuals not sharing their mtDNA haplotypes could not be assigned to the category FS. Female-female dyads not sharing their mtDNA haplotypes could not be assigned to the category PO.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli id=\u0022list-item-2\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-26\u0022\u003EAge known. Individuals whose age difference was less than the age at sexual maturity could not be assigned to PO.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli id=\u0022list-item-3\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-27\u0022\u003EAge and mtDNA haplotype known. The same dyads were excluded as in (1) and (2). Additionally, dyads in which the older individual was female and which did not share their mtDNA haplotype could not be assigned to PO.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-28\u0022\u003EAlthough dyads could be excluded from being grandparent\u2212grand offspring using age data, there were no age or mtDNA haplotype restrictions for R = 0.25 because this category included other relationships without age restrictions.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-7\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EData availability\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-29\u0022\u003EThe simulation code is available on DRYAD (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.5061\/dryad.sr61r\u0022\u003Ehttp:\/dx.doi.org\/10.5061\/dryad.sr61r\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section results\u0022 id=\u0022sec-8\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EResults\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-30\u0022\u003EFor a clear arrangement of our results, they were summarized together with the questions and reasoning in \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-1-4\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T1\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/a\u003E. The correct classification rate of an RCA was affected by the number of loci, MAF, typing error rate, availability of additional data as well as intrinsic population characteristics (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS2.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S2\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS3.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S3\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS4.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S4\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS5.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S5\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS6.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S6\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS1.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S1\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS2.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S2\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS3.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S3\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS7.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S7\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS8.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S8\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS9.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S9\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS10.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S10\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS11.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S11\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-1-8\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F1\u0022\u003EFigure 1\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-2-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F2\u0022\u003EFigure 2\u003C\/a\u003E, and \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-2-9\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T2\u0022\u003ETable 2\u003C\/a\u003E). Note that the formula for the likelihood for monozygotic twins was used in the simulations but we do not show the correct classification rate of assigning dyads to this category in the results section. However, we observed that a few dyads were assigned to this category when the MAF was low and 50 or 100 SNPs were used.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022F1\u0022 class=\u0022fig pos-float type-figure odd\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F1.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022Promiscuity: correct classification rate of relatedness category assignment (RCA) in a promiscuous population (average over 10 simulations). Three different minor allele frequencies (MAF) for single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), seven different numbers of SNP loci (individual bars from left to right: 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200), four different numbers of STR loci (from left to right: 10, 20, 40, 80), and a combination of SNP with 20 STR loci were simulated. On the left vertical axes, the proportion of the correct pedigree relatedness color in each category (PO: parent-offspring; FS: full sibs; unrel: unrelated) indicates the correct classification rate of the category-assignment based on the genetic loci. Other colors indicate source of erroneously assigned categories. The right vertical axes, and the lines in the subplots, indicate the number (No) of dyads that were assigned to each category (the true number of dyads can be inferred where almost 100% correct classification rates were achieved). The orders of magnitude at the top of the No dyads\/category scale of the first row apply to all No dyads\/category scales below it. Figure S1 and Figure S2 show the same plots for other mating systems. The variability between the 10 independent simulations is presented in Table S2.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-993455445\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;Promiscuity: correct classification rate of relatedness category assignment (RCA) in a promiscuous population (average over 10 simulations). Three different minor allele frequencies (MAF) for single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), seven different numbers of SNP loci (individual bars from left to right: 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200), four different numbers of STR loci (from left to right: 10, 20, 40, 80), and a combination of SNP with 20 STR loci were simulated. On the left vertical axes, the proportion of the correct pedigree relatedness color in each category (PO: parent-offspring; FS: full sibs; unrel: unrelated) indicates the correct classification rate of the category-assignment based on the genetic loci. Other colors indicate source of erroneously assigned categories. The right vertical axes, and the lines in the subplots, indicate the number (No) of dyads that were assigned to each category (the true number of dyads can be inferred where almost 100% correct classification rates were achieved). The orders of magnitude at the top of the No dyads\/category scale of the first row apply to all No dyads\/category scales below it. Figure S1 and Figure S2 show the same plots for other mating systems. The variability between the 10 independent simulations is presented in Table S2.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 1\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F1.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022291\u0022 height=\u0022440\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 1\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F1.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022291\u0022 height=\u0022440\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F1.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 1\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F1.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/466659\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 1\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-31\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003EPromiscuity: correct classification rate of relatedness category assignment (RCA) in a promiscuous population (average over 10 simulations). Three different minor allele frequencies (MAF) for single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), seven different numbers of SNP loci (individual bars from left to right: 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200), four different numbers of STR loci (from left to right: 10, 20, 40, 80), and a combination of SNP with 20 STR loci were simulated. On the left vertical axes, the proportion of the correct pedigree relatedness color in each category (PO: parent-offspring; FS: full sibs; unrel: unrelated) indicates the correct classification rate of the category-assignment based on the genetic loci. Other colors indicate source of erroneously assigned categories. The right vertical axes, and the lines in the subplots, indicate the number (No) of dyads that were assigned to each category (the true number of dyads can be inferred where almost 100% correct classification rates were achieved). The orders of magnitude at the top of the No dyads\/category scale of the first row apply to all No dyads\/category scales below it. \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS1.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S1\u003C\/a\u003E and \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS2.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S2\u003C\/a\u003E show the same plots for other mating systems. The variability between the 10 independent simulations is presented in \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS2.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S2\u003C\/a\u003E.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022F2\u0022 class=\u0022fig pos-float type-figure odd\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F2.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022Effect of additional data on correct classification rate of relatedness category assignment in a monogamous population using 20 STRs. In addition to age and\/or mtDNA haplotype, the sex of the individuals was known. Plotted are mean and range of the correct classification rate based on 10 independent simulations.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-993455445\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;Effect of additional data on correct classification rate of relatedness category assignment in a monogamous population using 20 STRs. In addition to age and\/or mtDNA haplotype, the sex of the individuals was known. Plotted are mean and range of the correct classification rate based on 10 independent simulations.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 2\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F2.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022205\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 2\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F2.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022205\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F2.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 2\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/content\/ggg\/5\/9\/1815\/F2.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/466654\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 2\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-32\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003EEffect of additional data on correct classification rate of relatedness category assignment in a monogamous population using 20 STRs. In addition to age and\/or mtDNA haplotype, the sex of the individuals was known. Plotted are mean and range of the correct classification rate based on 10 independent simulations.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022T2\u0022 class=\u0022table pos-float\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-inline table-callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022callout\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EView this table:\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-inline first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022##\u0022 class=\u0022table-expand-inline\u0022 data-table-url=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/466661\/expansion?postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0026amp;table-expand-inline=1\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView inline\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-popup last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/466661\/expansion?width=1000\u0026amp;height=500\u0026amp;iframe=true\u0026amp;postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0022 class=\u0022colorbox colorbox-load table-expand-popup\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-tables\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView popup\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022table-label\u0022\u003ETable 2\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022caption-title\u0022\u003EMinimum number of SNP and\/or STR loci required per category for a relatedness category assignment with \u0026gt;95% (\u0026gt;80%) correct classification rates\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-37\u0022\u003EPopulation size averaged 598.67 individuals, with range of 482\u2212703 individuals; note that these numbers of individuals are equal to 115,921 to 246,753 dyads. Within this large number of dyads, there were a few dyads that were assigned to more than one relatedness category based on pedigree (monogamy: mean = 0.63 dyads, range = 0\u22126; polygyny: 4.27, 0\u221213; promiscuity: 4.53, 0\u221213). This was possible because we assigned the dyads to the same categories based on pedigree as for the RCA. The most common categories that were shared were R = 0.25 and R = 0.125, \u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, dyads shared one parent and two grandparents that were not the shared parent\u2019s parent. Because of genetic drift, during the 100 simulated time steps of MAF 0.05 scenarios, a number of the 3200 SNP loci lost variation (became fixed for one allele): 25.8 (0.8%) in monogamy, 60.6 (1.9%) in polygyny, and 37.0 (1.2%) in promiscuity. No loci became fixed in scenarios with MAF = 0.25 or 0.5.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section discussion\u0022 id=\u0022sec-9\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EDiscussion\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-38\u0022\u003ESeveral relatedness categories can be assigned with 80 or 95% correct classification rates if certain pitfalls are avoided by considering life history parameters, number of loci used, mean MAF, and typing error rate. As expected, there is always a positive correlation between correct classification rate of the RCA and the number of loci loci. Note that when using a realistic number of 800 SNPs or 20 STRs, more categories could be assigned at a given correct classification rate level by SNPs than by STRs (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-2-10\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T2\u0022\u003ETable 2\u003C\/a\u003E). This favors SNPs (or a combination of SNPs and STRs) over STRs. The assignment of more distantly related dyads than R = 0.25 (rarely R = 0.125) appears to be impossible using RCAs, even when 10,000s of SNP loci are available (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS3.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S3\u003C\/a\u003E), possibly because of stochasticity in allele segregation or deeper roots of coancestry.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-39\u0022\u003EEven though few (around 100 SNPs or 10 STRs) loci are sufficient to correctly assign most real (pedigree-based) parent-offspring and full sib pairs to the correct relatedness categories, the high rate of false positives (SNPs MAF 0.05 and 0.25: PO: 0.81\u22120.85 and 0.11\u22120.19, FS 0.75\u22120.99 and 0.23\u22120.98; STRs: PO 0.85\u22120.89, FS 0.92\u22120.99 across all three mating systems) at these relatedness categories makes the use of this small number of loci problematic, as previously reported for parentage inference (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-2-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-2\u0022\u003EAnderson and Garza 2006\u003C\/a\u003E). A combined data set of SNP and STR loci may increase the correct classification rate of RCAs, especially for parent-offspring pairs when SNP data with low informativeness are available (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS4.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S4\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS5.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S5\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS6.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S6\u003C\/a\u003E, and \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-2-11\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T2\u0022\u003ETable 2\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-40\u0022\u003EFor our estimation we did not consider any prior knowledge of possible relationships. This approach seems realistic for many ecological studies in natural populations. Because of the absence of assumptions about the potential relationships, the numbers of loci suggested here (\u2265 40 STRs, 100\u22123200 SNPs) are much higher than the number of loci considered sufficient for the assignment of relatedness categories by \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-8-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-8\u0022\u003EBrookfield and Parkin (1993\u003C\/a\u003E; 2\u22129+ STRs), \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-47-4\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-47\u0022\u003EWang (2006\u003C\/a\u003E; 2\u221213 STRs, 11-92 SNPs 2006), or forensic studies (10\u221215 STRs, 51 SNPs, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-1-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-1\u0022\u003EAmorim and Pereira 2005\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-37-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-37\u0022\u003ESanchez \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2006\u003C\/a\u003E). This is because these studies\u2019 estimates were based on only two hypothetical relationships: null relatedness \u003Cem\u003Evs.\u003C\/em\u003E a single alternative relatedness category. Statistical significance for the support of the assignment of individual dyads to any relatedness category [by calculating LOD score (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-24-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-24\u0022\u003EKalinowski \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2007\u003C\/a\u003E) or FDR (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-39-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-39\u0022\u003ESkaug \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2010\u003C\/a\u003E)] was not inferred in our study, and, therefore, we might have underestimated the correct classification rate of the RCA. However, by assigning all dyads to the relatedness category with the greatest likelihood, all dyads were assigned to a relationship category.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-41\u0022\u003ESome false-positive results may be identified through additional knowledge (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-2-4\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F2\u0022\u003EFigure 2\u003C\/a\u003E) such as mtDNA haplotype or age, which can be estimated from genetic samples (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-34-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-34\u0022\u003EPolanowski \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E). Besides increasing the correct classification rate of the category PO, age data also provide directionality to PO pairs, \u003Cem\u003Ei.e.\u003C\/em\u003E, identify who is the parent and who the offspring.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-42\u0022\u003ESome false-positive results may be identified also by genetic data only: a polyadic approach, \u003Cem\u003Ei.e.\u003C\/em\u003E, comparing the compatibility of dyadic relationships by simultaneously assigning parentage and sibship, might filter out some incorrectly assigned dyads by identifying incompatible polyads. Borrowing the example from \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-51-4\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-51\u0022\u003EWang and Santure (2009)\u003C\/a\u003E, if individuals A and B, and A and C, were assigned to the category full sibs the assignment of B and C to R = 0.25 is incompatible. A polyadic approach for sibship and parentage reconstruction was implemented in COLONY2 (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-51-5\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-51\u0022\u003EWang and Santure 2009\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-22-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-22\u0022\u003EJones and Wang 2010\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-49-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-49\u0022\u003EWang 2013\u003C\/a\u003E). Another approach which uses a third individual as reference when assigning a dyad to a relatedness category seems to perform better than a purely dyadic approach (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-48-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-48\u0022\u003EWang 2007\u003C\/a\u003E) and could change the number of required loci for an RCA presented here.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-43\u0022\u003EThe exclusion from consideration of a single category (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, R = 0.125, \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS3.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S3\u003C\/a\u003E) in simulations decreased the correct classification rate of an adjacent category (\u003Cem\u003Ee.g.\u003C\/em\u003E, R = 0.25) and is therefore not recommended. However, the addition of an extra category (\u003Cem\u003Ei.e.\u003C\/em\u003E, R = 0.0625) may be beneficial (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS4.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S4\u003C\/a\u003E and \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS7.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S7\u003C\/a\u003E). To our knowledge, the category R = 0.0625 has not been used in previous studies (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-44-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-44\u0022\u003EThompson 1975\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-15-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-15\u0022\u003EEpstein \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2000\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-6\u0022\u003EBlouin 2003\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-47-5\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-47\u0022\u003EWang 2006\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-51-6\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-51\u0022\u003EWang and Santure 2009\u003C\/a\u003E) even though the expected proportion of shared genetic information is higher than for second cousins (R = 0.03125, described in \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-47-6\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-47\u0022\u003EWang 2006\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-44\u0022\u003EThe categories R = 0.25 and R = 0.125 contain several relationships (half sibs\/grand-parent-grand-child\/avuncular and full cousins\/half-avuncular, quadruple second cousins, respectively). Methods to separate pedigree relationships sharing the same relationship coefficient have been proposed. They are based on the relationship between the number of chromosomal segments (approximately 2 Mb, as opposed to individual loci) shared IBD by two individuals and the number of meioses on the path relating these individuals (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-21-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-21\u0022\u003EHuff \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2011\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-10-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-10\u0022\u003EBrowning and Browning 2012\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-19-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-19\u0022\u003EHill and White 2013\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-28-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-28\u0022\u003ELi \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E). With these methods, dyads may be assigned with reasonable confidence also to relatedness categories more distant than R = 0.25 (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-18-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-18\u0022\u003EHenn \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2012\u003C\/a\u003E). These methods sound promising and feasible for non-model species if long scaffolds of their genomes are available for each individual. However, even with next-generation genotyping, most studies on nonmodel organisms do not have adequate mapping information to assign the IBD blocks upon which \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-10-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-10\u0022\u003EBrowning and Browning (2012)\u003C\/a\u003E rely.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-45\u0022\u003EThe simulation data sets are unrealistically ideal in terms of completeness of sampling (or extent of random sampling), missing data (none), and typing error (none for most simulations). Genotyping error rates of current next-generation sequencing platforms are still substantial and the power of the conversion of the raw sequencing reads into genotypes depends on sequencing depth and SNP calling algorithms (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-31-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-31\u0022\u003ENielsen \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2011\u003C\/a\u003E). But even if three SNP calling algorithms agree on an individual genotype, the assigned genotype may be incorrect in 3.5% of individuals, as a recent study has shown (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-17-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-17\u0022\u003EGreminger \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2014\u003C\/a\u003E). Typing error should be taken into account because it can have profound effects on the power of kinship analyses. For most categories, with a 2% typing error rate, the number of loci required for any given correct classification rate of RCA is two to four times greater compared with error-free data (question 9 in \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS5.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S5\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-1-5\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T1\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/a\u003E, and \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-2-12\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T2\u0022\u003ETable 2\u003C\/a\u003E). PO and FS dyads are logically more susceptible to error than dyads of more distantly related categories; our data corroborate this (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/TableS5.pdf\u0022\u003ETable S5\u003C\/a\u003E and \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-2-13\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T2\u0022\u003ETable 2\u003C\/a\u003E). Taking the ideal data sets generated by simulations into account, the number of loci we recommend to be used for RCAs are the minimum for best case data sets, meaning that researchers should estimate the error rate of their data and its impact on analyses. Also, it is important to bear in mind (and this is one aim of this study) that the necessary number of loci for an RCA to be able to have an adequate correct classification rate might differ for populations with other characteristics not present in the simulated populations.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-46\u0022\u003EThe decline in correct classification rate with increasing proportion of individuals sampled in the population (question 6 in \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS4.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S4\u003C\/a\u003E and \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-1-6\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T1\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/a\u003E) may be puzzling at first. Here it is important to note that the number of dyads increases as the square of the number of individuals sampled, with a faster increase of the number of unrelated dyads compared to related dyads (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS5.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S5\u003C\/a\u003E, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-39-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-39\u0022\u003ESkaug \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2010\u003C\/a\u003E). It seems that the influence of misclassifying unrelated individuals outweighs any correct classification rate gain due to improved estimates of allele frequencies (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\/FigureS6.pdf\u0022\u003EFigure S6\u003C\/a\u003E) due to more complete sampling.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-47\u0022\u003ECensus population size is a parameter space that we did not explore, even though it might influence the correct classification rate of an RCA. Some effects may be inferred from the subsampling simulations: the correct classification rate of the RCA decreased with increasing number of pedigree-based unrelated dyads. This finding suggests that in comparison with small populations, relationship assignments of samples originating from large populations potentially may require more loci for similar correct classification rate and\/or certain categories may not reach satisfactory correct classification rates.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-48\u0022\u003EWe would like to emphasize that, especially with the facilitated development of genetic markers, (i) the effect of intrinsic population characteristics on correct classification rate should be taken into account for RCAs, and (ii) 95% correct classification rate can be achieved and should be favored over the 80% threshold that is widely used in paternity studies (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-29-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-29\u0022\u003EMarshall \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 1998\u003C\/a\u003E). Also, the correct classification rate of a set of loci should be evaluated at the beginning of a project and considered in downstream analyses and interpretation. Unfortunately, sorely-needed software simulating populations that have realistic population parameters and track pedigrees through time are very rare, making RCA power analyses difficult. Instead, available simulation software uses simple demographic and life history models (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-20-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-20\u0022\u003EHoban 2014\u003C\/a\u003E) or researchers use custom-made simulations (this study, \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-41-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-41\u0022\u003ETaylor \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E 2015\u003C\/a\u003E). Until software that simulates populations with realistic parameters are available, the relationship between correct classification rate, population characteristics, and genetic marker characteristics suggested in this study could be used as a rough guideline for power estimates.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section ack\u0022 id=\u0022ack-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-49\u0022\u003EWe are grateful to Bob Dr\u00f6ge from the Millipede team for his advice on running the simulations on a HPC cluster and to Jo\u00e3o B. L. Gusm\u00e3o Junior for improving the resolution of \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-1-9\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F1\u0022\u003EFigure 1\u003C\/a\u003E. We would like to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments. A.M.K. was supported by a fellowship for prospective researchers from the Swiss National Science Foundation. \u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section fn-group\u0022 id=\u0022fn-group-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2\u003EFootnotes\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022fn-supplementary-material\u0022 id=\u0022fn-6\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-50\u0022\u003ESupporting information is available online at \u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/www.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\u0022\u003Ewww.g3journal.org\/lookup\/suppl\/doi:10.1534\/g3.115.019323\/-\/DC1\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022fn\u0022 id=\u0022fn-7\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-51\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003ECommunicating editor: S. I. Wright\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022history-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli xmlns:hwp=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Journal\u0022 class=\u0022received\u0022 hwp:start=\u00222015-03-27\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022received-label\u0022\u003EReceived \u003C\/span\u003EMarch 27, 2015.\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli xmlns:hwp=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Journal\u0022 class=\u0022accepted\u0022 hwp:start=\u00222015-06-23\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022accepted-label\u0022\u003EAccepted \u003C\/span\u003EJune 23, 2015.\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022copyright-statement\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022fn\u0022 id=\u0022copyright-statement-1\u0022\u003ECopyright \u00a9 2015 Kopps \u003Cem\u003Eet al.\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022license\u0022 id=\u0022license-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-1\u0022\u003EThis is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\u0022 rel=\u0022license\u0022\u003Ehttp:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\u003C\/a\u003E), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section ref-list\u0022 id=\u0022ref-list-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\u0022\u0022\u003ELiterature Cited\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-list ref-use-labels\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-1-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-1\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.1\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.06.018\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EAmorim\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPereira\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2005\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EPros and cons in the use of SNPs in forensic kinship investigation: a comparative analysis with STRs.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EForensic Sci. 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class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E2582\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DGenetics%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1534%252Fgenetics.105.048074%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F16387880%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/ijlink\/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6ODoiZ2VuZXRpY3MiO3M6NToicmVzaWQiO3M6MTA6IjE3Mi80LzI1NjciO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoxODoiL2dnZy81LzkvMTgxNS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=\u0022 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class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EAvise\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ. 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Biol.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E14\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E68\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DBMC%2BEvol.%2BBiol.%26rft.volume%253D14%26rft.spage%253D68%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1186%252F1471-2148-14-68%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F24684698%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1186\/1471-2148-14-68\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=24684698\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-5-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-5\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.5\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1073\/pnas.1120666109\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBenjamin\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED. 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Evol.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E18\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E503\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E511\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DTrends%2BEcol.%2BEvol.%26rft.volume%253D18%26rft.spage%253D503%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1016%252FS0169-5347%252803%252900225-8%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1016\/S0169-5347(03)00225-8\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=000185728100007\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-7-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-7\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.7\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/j.tree.2012.02.003\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBonduriansky\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2012\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ERethinking heredity, again.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ETrends Ecol. 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Genet.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E67\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E1219\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E1231\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DAmerican%2Bjournal%2Bof%2Bhuman%2Bgenetics%26rft.stitle%253DAm%2BJ%2BHum%2BGenet%26rft.aulast%253DEpstein%26rft.auinit1%253DM.%2BP.%26rft.volume%253D67%26rft.issue%253D5%26rft.spage%253D1219%26rft.epage%253D1231%26rft.atitle%253DImproved%2Binference%2Bof%2Brelationship%2Bfor%2Bpairs%2Bof%2Bindividuals.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1086%252F321195%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F11032786%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1086\/321195\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=11032786\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=000165091600019\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-16-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-16\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.16\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1111\/j.1755-0998.2011.03037.x\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGardner\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM. 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Resour.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E11\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E1093\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E1101\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DMol.%2BEcol.%2BResour.%26rft.volume%253D11%26rft.spage%253D1093%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1111%252Fj.1755-0998.2011.03037.x%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F21679314%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2011.03037.x\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=21679314\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-17-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-17\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.17\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1186\/1471-2164-15-16\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGreminger\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EStolting\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EK.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ENater\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGoossens\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan 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class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E16\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DBMC%2BGenomics%26rft.volume%253D15%26rft.spage%253D16%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1186%252F1471-2164-15-16%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F24405840%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1186\/1471-2164-15-16\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca 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M.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EEriksson\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EN.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESaxonov\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2012\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ECryptic distant relatives are common in both isolated and cosmopolitan genetic samples.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EPLoS One\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E7\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003Ee34267\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.stitle%253DPLoS%2BONE%26rft.aulast%253DHenn%26rft.auinit1%253DB.%2BM.%26rft.volume%253D7%26rft.issue%253D4%26rft.spage%253De34267%26rft.epage%253De34267%26rft.atitle%253DCryptic%2Bdistant%2Brelatives%2Bare%2Bcommon%2Bin%2Bboth%2Bisolated%2Band%2Bcosmopolitan%2Bgenetic%2Bsamples.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0034267%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F22509285%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1371\/journal.pone.0034267\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=22509285\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-19-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-19\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-other\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.19\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1534\/g3.113.007500\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHill\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EW. 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Ecol.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E16\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E1099\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E1106\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DMolecular%2BEcology%2B%2528Print%2529%26rft.stitle%253DMolecular%2BEcology%2B%2528Print%2529%26rft.aulast%253DKalinowski%26rft.auinit1%253DS.%2BT.%26rft.volume%253D16%26rft.issue%253D5%26rft.spage%253D1099%26rft.epage%253D1106%26rft.atitle%253DRevising%2Bhow%2Bthe%2Bcomputer%2Bprogram%2BCERVUS%2Baccommodates%2Bgenotyping%2Berror%2Bincreases%2Bsuccess%2Bin%2Bpaternity%2Bassignment.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1111%252Fj.1365-294X.2007.03089.x%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F17305863%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2007.03089.x\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=17305863\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=000244245300014\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-25-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-25\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.25\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/j.anbehav.2012.08.029\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKopps\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA. 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Behav.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E84\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E1347\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E1362\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DAnim.%2BBehav.%26rft.volume%253D84%26rft.spage%253D1347%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1016%252Fj.anbehav.2012.08.029%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1016\/j.anbehav.2012.08.029\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=000311953200009\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-26-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-26\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.26\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1007\/s12686-012-9727-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKopps\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMcDonald\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EP.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERollins\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2013\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EIsolation and characterisation of polymorphic microsatellite loci for Noisy Miners \u003Cem\u003EManorina melanocephala\u003C\/em\u003E, with successful cross-amplification in Bell Miners \u003Cem\u003EM. melanophrys\u003C\/em\u003E.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EConserv. 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href=\u0022\/lookup\/ijlink\/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6Nzoicm95cHJzYiI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czoxNzoiMjgxLzE3ODIvMjAxMzMyNDUiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoxODoiL2dnZy81LzkvMTgxNS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-ijlink\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-abstract\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-sep cit-reflinks-variant-name-sep\u0022\u003E\/\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022free-full-text\u0022\u003EFREE \u003C\/span\u003EFull Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-28-1\u0022 title=\u0022View 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class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EShankaracharya\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECaballero\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2014\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ERelationship estimation from whole-genome sequence data.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EPLoS Genet.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/span\u003E: 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Resour.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E797\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E805\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DMol.%2BEcol.%2BResour.%26rft.volume%253D10%26rft.spage%253D797%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1111%252Fj.1755-0998.2010.02887.x%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F21565091%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2010.02887.x\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=21565091\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-33-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-33\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.33\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1371\/journal.pone.0037135\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv 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class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHoekstra\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2012\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EDouble digest RADseq: an inexpensive method for de novo SNP discovery and genotyping in model and non-model species.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EPLoS One\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E7\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003Ee37135\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.stitle%253DPLoS%2BONE%26rft.aulast%253DPeterson%26rft.auinit1%253DB.%2BK.%26rft.volume%253D7%26rft.issue%253D5%26rft.spage%253De37135%26rft.epage%253De37135%26rft.atitle%253DDouble%2Bdigest%2BRADseq%253A%2Ban%2Binexpensive%2Bmethod%2Bfor%2Bde%2Bnovo%2BSNP%2Bdiscovery%2Band%2Bgenotyping%2Bin%2Bmodel%2Band%2Bnon-model%2Bspecies.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0037135%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F22675423%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1371\/journal.pone.0037135\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=22675423\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-34-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-34\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.34\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPolanowski\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan 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C.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGoodnight\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EK. F.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E1989\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EEstimating relatedness using genetic-markers.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EEvolution\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E43\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E258\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E275\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DEvolution%26rft.volume%253D43%26rft.spage%253D258%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.2307%252F2409206%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.2307\/2409206\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=A1989T799700002\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-36-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-36\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.36\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1093\/bioinformatics\/btp064\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERiester\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EStadler\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EP. 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R.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBurke\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ET.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-etal\u0022\u003Eet al.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2010\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EOn the use of large marker panels to estimate inbreeding and relatedness: empirical and simulation studies of a pedigreed zebra finch population typed at 771 SNPs.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EMol. Ecol.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E19\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E1439\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E1451\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DMolecular%2BEcology%2B%2528Print%2529%26rft.stitle%253DMolecular%2BEcology%2B%2528Print%2529%26rft.aulast%253DSanture%26rft.auinit1%253DA.%2BW.%26rft.volume%253D19%26rft.issue%253D7%26rft.spage%253D1439%26rft.epage%253D1451%26rft.atitle%253DOn%2Bthe%2Buse%2Bof%2Blarge%2Bmarker%2Bpanels%2Bto%2Bestimate%2Binbreeding%2Band%2Brelatedness%253A%2Bempirical%2Band%2Bsimulation%2Bstudies%2Bof%2Ba%2Bpedigreed%2Bzebra%2Bfinch%2Bpopulation%2Btyped%2Bat%2B771%2BSNPs.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1111%252Fj.1365-294X.2010.04554.x%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F20149098%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2010.04554.x\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=20149098\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=000275761300016\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-39-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-39\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.39\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1111\/j.1755-0998.2010.02833.x\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESkaug\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH. J.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBerube\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPalsb\u00f8ll\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EP. J.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2010\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EDetecting dyads of related individuals in large collections of DNA-profiles by controlling the false discovery rate.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EMol. Ecol. Resour.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E693\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E700\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DMol.%2BEcol.%2BResour.%26rft.volume%253D10%26rft.spage%253D693%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1111%252Fj.1755-0998.2010.02833.x%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F21565074%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2010.02833.x\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=21565074\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-40-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-40\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.40\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESpeed\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBalding\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED. 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Genet.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E16\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E901\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E913\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DConserv.%2BGenet.%26rft.volume%253D16%26rft.spage%253D901%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1007%252Fs10592-015-0709-1%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1007\/s10592-015-0709-1\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-42-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-42\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.42\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EThomas\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHill\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EW.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2000\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EEstimating quantitative genetic parameters using sibships reconstructed from marker data.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EGenetics\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E155\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E1961\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E1972\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca 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href=\u0022\/lookup\/ijlink\/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6ODoiZ2VuZXRpY3MiO3M6NToicmVzaWQiO3M6MTA6IjE1NS80LzE5NjEiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoxODoiL2dnZy81LzkvMTgxNS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-ijlink\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-abstract\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-sep cit-reflinks-variant-name-sep\u0022\u003E\/\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022free-full-text\u0022\u003EFREE \u003C\/span\u003EFull Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-43-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in 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Genet.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E39\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E173\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E188\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DAnnals%2Bof%2Bhuman%2Bgenetics%26rft.stitle%253DAnn%2BHum%2BGenet%26rft.aulast%253DThompson%26rft.auinit1%253DE.%2BA.%26rft.volume%253D39%26rft.issue%253D2%26rft.spage%253D173%26rft.epage%253D188%26rft.atitle%253DThe%2Bestimation%2Bof%2Bpairwise%2Brelationships.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1111%252Fj.1469-1809.1975.tb00120.x%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F1052764%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1111\/j.1469-1809.1975.tb00120.x\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=1052764\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=A1975AX72600006\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-45-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-45\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.45\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1051\/gse:2002009\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EVignal\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMilan\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESanCristobal\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EEggen\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2002\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EA review on SNP and other types of molecular markers and their use in animal genetics.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EGenet. 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href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DGenetics%252C%2Bselection%252C%2Bevolution.%2B%253A%2B%2BGSE%26rft.stitle%253DGenet%2BSel%2BEvol%26rft.aulast%253DVignal%26rft.auinit1%253DA.%26rft.volume%253D34%26rft.issue%253D3%26rft.spage%253D275%26rft.epage%253D305%26rft.atitle%253DA%2Breview%2Bon%2BSNP%2Band%2Bother%2Btypes%2Bof%2Bmolecular%2Bmarkers%2Band%2Btheir%2Buse%2Bin%2Banimal%2Bgenetics.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1051%252Fgse%253A2002009%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F12081799%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1051\/gse:2002009\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=12081799\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=000176561700001\u0026amp;link_type=ISI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-newisilink cit-ref-sprinkles-webofscience\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EWeb of Science\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-46-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-46\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 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class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DGenetics%26rft.stitle%253DGenetics%26rft.aulast%253DWang%26rft.auinit1%253DJ.%26rft.volume%253D166%26rft.issue%253D4%26rft.spage%253D1963%26rft.epage%253D1979%26rft.atitle%253DSibship%2BReconstruction%2BFrom%2BGenetic%2BData%2BWith%2BTyping%2BErrors%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1534%252Fgenetics.166.4.1963%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F15126412%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/ijlink\/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6ODoiZ2VuZXRpY3MiO3M6NToicmVzaWQiO3M6MTA6IjE2Ni80LzE5NjMiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoxODoiL2dnZy81LzkvMTgxNS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-ijlink\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-abstract\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-sep cit-reflinks-variant-name-sep\u0022\u003E\/\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022free-full-text\u0022\u003EFREE \u003C\/span\u003EFull Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-47-2\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in 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Biol.\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E70\u003C\/span\u003E: \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E300\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E321\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DTheoretical%2Bpopulation%2Bbiology%26rft.stitle%253DTheor%2BPopul%2BBiol%26rft.aulast%253DSansone%26rft.auinit1%253DE.%26rft.volume%253D70%26rft.issue%253D3%26rft.spage%253D300%26rft.epage%253D321%26rft.atitle%253DInformativeness%2Bof%2Bgenetic%2Bmarkers%2Bfor%2Bpairwise%2Brelationship%2Band%2Brelatedness%2Binference.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1016%252Fj.tpb.2005.11.003%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F16388833%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1016\/j.tpb.2005.11.003\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=16388833\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fggg%2F5%2F9%2F1815.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-48-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-48\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-5.9.1815.48\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EWang\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ.\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2007\u003C\/span\u003E\u2003\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ETriadic IBD coefficients and applications to estimating pairwise relatedness.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EGenet. 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quantum field theory
(redirected from Field Quantization)
Also found in: Dictionary, Encyclopedia.
• noun
Words related to quantum field theory
the branch of quantum physics that is concerned with the theory of fields
References in periodicals archive ?
dissertation for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Springer Verlag, 2000) into a textbook by adding new materials and problem sets suitable for advanced undergraduate or first-year graduate students who have a basic working knowledge of canonical field quantization.
Topics covered include single-mode field quantization in a cavity, quantization of multimode fields, and coherent states.
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To change the ringtone of your Samsung Galaxy S2 or other Samsung Galaxy devices do as follows: 1. Open "Setting" App 2. Go to "Sound" 3. Find ...
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ADO.NET
Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии
Перейти к: навигация, поиск
ADO.NET (ActiveX Data Object для .NET) — технология, предоставляющая доступ к данным для приложений, основанных на Microsoft .NET. Является не развитием более ранней технологии ADO, а самостоятельной технологией, частью фреймворка .NET. В отличие от классической ADO, которая была в основном предназначена для тесно связанных клиент-серверных систем, ADO.NET больше нацелена на автономную работу с помощью объектов DataSet. Эти типы представляют локальные копии любого количества взаимосвязанных таблиц данных, каждая из которых содержит набор строк и столбцов. Объекты DataSet позволяют вызывающей сборке (наподобие веб-страницы или программы, выполняющейся на настольном компьютере) работать с содержимым DataSet, изменять его, не требуя подключения к источнику данных, и отправлять обратно блоки измененных данных для обработки с помощью соответствующего адаптера данных. Но, пожалуй, самое фундаментальное различие между классической ADO и ADO.NET состоит в том, что ADO.NET является управляемой кодовой библиотекой, и, значит, подчиняется тем же правилам, что и любая управляемая библиотека. Типы, составляющие ADO.NET, используют протокол управления памятью CLR, принадлежат к той же системе типов (классы, интерфейсы, перечисления, структуры и делегаты), и доступ к ним возможен с помощью любого языка .NET. Классы ADO.NET находятся в сборке System.Data.dll.
Поставщики данных[править | править код]
От других API ADO.NET отличает то, что она не взаимодействует с системами управления базами данных напрямую. Вместо этого используются поставщики данных (data provider), которые инкапсулируют механизм работы с конкретной СУБД. Такой подход очень гибок, позволяет создавать адаптеры для любой СУБД и полностью использовать её особенности.
Подключаемый уровень[править | править код]
На данном уровне работа c базами данных ведётся через объекты подключения, объекты чтения данных и поставщика данных предназначенного для нужной СУБД. Для получения данных выполняются следующие шаги.
• Создание, настройка и открытие объекта подключения.
• Создание и настройка объекта команды, указывающего объект подключения в аргументе конструктора или через свойство Connection.
• Вызов метода ExecuteReader () настроенного объекта команды.
• Обработка каждой записи с помощью метода Read () объекта чтения данных.
Объекты чтения данных предоставляют поток данных, для чтения в прямом направлении. Чтение происходит каждый раз по одной записи. Следовательно объекты чтения обрабатывают только select запросы. Открытие и закрытие подключения к БД полностью возлагается на программиста.
Автономный уровень[править | править код]
Автономный уровень ADO.NET позволяет отображать реляционные данные с помощью модели объектов в память. Типы данных из System.Data воспроизводят не только отображение строк и столбцов, а также отношения между таблицами, первичные ключи и т. д. Так как отображение данных происходит в память, подключение не занимает времени СУБД, подключаясь и отключаясь автоматически, при чтении и обновлении данных, автономный уровень снимает с программиста лишнюю работу. Но у данного уровня есть недостаток, представьте что требуется считать из БД 20000 записей, и при использовании автономного уровня, все это ляжет в память приложения, не очень разумное использование, здесь на выручку приходит подключаемый уровень который считает все последовательно.
Entity Framework[править | править код]
Предыдущие уровни ADO.NET все ещё привязаны к физической структуре данных. При взаимодействии с данными необходимо помнить схемы таблиц, отношений. Общение с БД осуществляет на языке SQL, что приводит к большому объёму кода, так как язык C# сильно отличается от SQL. Entity Framework выводит абстракцию на новый уровень - объектной модели. Теперь отображение происходит на бизнес-объекты приложения, что позволяет работать с данными как с обычными объектами языка. Сущности (еntities) — это концептуальная модель физической базы данных, которая отображается на предметную область. Формально говоря, эта модель называется моделью сущностных данных (Entity Data Model — EDM). Модель EDM представляет собой набор классов клиентской стороны, которые отображаются на физическую базу данных. Тем не менее, нужно понимать, что сущности вовсе не обязаны напрямую отображаться на схему базы данных, как может показаться, исходя из названия. Сущностные классы можно реструктурировать для соответствия существующим потребностям, и исполняющая среда EF отобразит эти уникальные имена на корректную схему базы данных.
Литература[править | править код]
• Сахил Малик. Microsoft ADO.NET 2.0 для профессионалов = Pro ADO.NET 2.0. — М.: «Вильямс», 2006. — С. 560. — ISBN 1-59059-512-2.
• Эндрю Троелсен. Язык Программирования С#2010 и платформа .NET 4.0 = PRO C# 2010 AND THE .NET 4 PLATFORM. — 5-е издание. — Москва • Санкт-Петербург • Киев: «Вильямс», 2011. — С. 1392. — ISBN 978-5-8459-1682-2.
Ссылки[править | править код]
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Coordinate generalizzate
Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
(Reindirizzamento da Coordinate lagrangiane)
bussola Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Coordinate euleriane e lagrangiane.
In meccanica lagrangiana un sistema di coordinate generalizzate (o lagrangiane) è un sistema di coordinate, di numero pari o superiore ai gradi di libertà del sistema, che determina univocamente lo stato del sistema.
Definizione[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
Dato un sistema meccanico con I gradi di libertà e un qualunque sistema di coordinate, per esempio cartesiane, nel quale lo stato del sistema è indicato dal vettore \bar x=(x_d), con m\ge n, è possibile esprimere ogni variabile x_d in funzione del vettore \bar r=(r_i). Ogni r_i è detta variabile generalizzata:
\begin{cases} x_1 = \phi (r_1, \dots, r_I)\\
x_2 = \phi (r_1, \dots , r_I) \\
\dots \; \; \dots \\
x_D = \phi (r_1, \dots , r_I)
\end{cases}
dove \bar r = (r_i) \in A \subset \mathbb{R}^n con A aperto, e \bar \phi : A \longrightarrow \mathbb{R}^m è una funzione regolare. Queste devono costituire necessariamente un insieme di generatori dello spazio vettoriale I-dimensionale degli stati del sistema, mentre non è necessario che siano linearmente indipendenti. Ciò non è vero ad esempio in presenza di vincoli che legano tra di loro alcune tra le x_i. Le coordinate generalizzate possono quindi anche essere rappresentate da grandezze diverse da posizioni o angoli, per esempio dall'energia meccanica o dal volume del sistema.
Esempi[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
Un sistema di N particelle nello spazio D-dimensionale può avere fino a N D gradi di libertà, e quindi coordinate generalizzate (una per ogni dimensione del moto di ciascuna particella). Un sistema di N corpi rigidi può avere fino a 6N coordinate generalizzate nello spazio tridimensionale, includendo 3 assi di rotazione per ogni corpo. Il numero di gradi di libertà effettivi si riduce in seguito all'introduzione di vincoli tra le posizioni delle particelle (vincoli olonomi) e le velocità (vincoli anolonomi). Ad esempio un sistema formato da due particelle puntiformi nello spazio 3D ha 6 gradi di libertà (3 per ogni coordinata cartesiana di ciascuna particella), ma con l'introduzione di un vincolo, come la condizione che le particelle rimangano a distanza fissata l'una dall'altra, riduce a 5 i gradi di libertà (6 coordinate - 1 vincolo). Una scelta conveniente delle variabili lagrangiane consiste in questo caso nell'usarne tre per localizzare il centro di massa del sistema e le rimanenti due per determinare l'orientazione nello spazio della retta che congiunge le due particelle: in questo modo abbiamo 5 coordinate indipendenti tra loro.
Un corpo costretto a spostarsi lungo un vincolo unidimensionale (es. una curva regolare \phi(t), \phi:\mathbb{R} \longrightarrow \mathbb{R}^3) ha solo un grado di libertà, e la coordinata generalizzata usata il più delle volte per descriverne il moto è l'ascissa curvilinea q=t, cioè la variabile che parametrizza la curva. Da notare che un moto nelle tre dimensioni è stato ridotto ad una dimensione.
Analogamente un corpo vincolato ad una superficie ha due gradi di libertà, anche se il suo moto è ancora agganciato alle tre dimensioni. Se la superficie è una sfera, una buona scelta di coordinate è \lbrace r_1,r_2\rbrace = \lbrace \theta,\phi \rbrace , dove \theta e \phi sono le coordinate di angolo provenienti dalle coordinate sferiche. La coordinata r è stata soppressa in quanto una particella che si muove su una sfera mantiene una distanza costante dal centro della sfera.
Un doppio pendolo costretto a muoversi su un piano può essere descritto, in un sistema di assi cartesiani (x,y), con l'asse y verticale discendente, da quattro coordinate cartesiane \lbrace x_1,y_1,x_2,y_2\rbrace, ma il sistema ha solo due gradi di libertà, ed un sistema più efficiente potrebbe essere quello di considerare come variabili lagrangiane l'angolo che ciascun pendolo forma con la verticale. Ponendo \lbrace r_1,r_2\rbrace = \lbrace\theta_1,\theta_2 \rbrace otteniamo le seguenti relazioni:
\lbrace x_1, y_1 \rbrace = \lbrace l_1\sin\theta_1, l_1\cos\theta_1 \rbrace
\lbrace x_2, y_2 \rbrace = \lbrace l_1\sin\theta_1 + l_2\sin\theta_2 , l_1\cos\theta_1 + l_2\cos\theta_2 \rbrace
dove l_1 è la lunghezza del pendolo vincolato all'origine e l_2 è la lunghezza del pendolo vincolato all'estremità libera dell'altro.
Velocità generalizzata[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
Exquisite-kfind.png Per approfondire, vedi spazio delle fasi.
Ogni coordinata generalizzata r_i è associata ad una velocità generalizzata \dot r_i, definita come:
\dot r_i \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=}{dr_i \over dt}
Nell'ipotesi che le coordinate sono linearmente indipendenti fra loro, esse dipendono solo dal tempo:
\dot r_i={\partial r_i \over \partial t}
Sia dato un sistema di N particelle in D dimensioni, quindi con al massimo ND gradi di libertà. L'n-esima particella ha come coordinata d-esima (X_{nd}), e quindi le posizioni del sistema sono rappresentabili come una matrice X \in R^{N \times D}. Si può passare ad un sistema di riferimento formato da ND coordinate generalizzate se esistono le D+1 equazioni di trasformazione tra le D coordinate cartesiane e le generalizzate:
x_d = x_d \left (r_n, t \right )
Queste equazioni possono infatti essere derivate nel tempo, ottenendo le velocità:
\dot x_d \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=} \frac {d}{dt} x_d \left (r_n, t \right )=\sum_{i=1}^{ND}\frac{\partial x_d}{\partial r_i}{\partial r_i \over \partial t}+\frac{\partial x_d}{\partial t} = \sum_{i=1}^{ND}\frac{\partial x_d}{\partial r_i}\dot r_i+\frac{\partial x_d}{\partial t}
e quindi il vettore D-dimensionale velocità è dato da:
\dot {\bar x}_{(\dot {\bar r})} = \nabla \bar x \cdot \dot {\bar r} + \frac{\partial \bar x}{\partial t}
Quantità di moto generalizzata[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
La quantità di moto generalizzata è definita come grandezza corrispondente alle quantità di moto newtoniane:
q_i \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=} \sum_{n = 1}^N p_n \frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial r_i} = \sum_{n = 1}^N m_n \dot {\bar x}_n \frac{\partial \dot {\bar x}_n}{\partial \dot r_i} = \frac{\partial {\sum_{n = 1}^N \frac{1}{2}m_n \dot {\bar x}_n^2}}{\partial \dot r_i}
Risulta che:
q_i = \frac{\partial T}{\partial \dot r_i}=\sum_{j = 1}^I H_{ij} T_{(\bar 0)} \dot r_j + \nabla_i T_{(\bar 0)}
Quest'ultima equivalenza può essere comprovata utilizzando la dimostrazione delle equazioni di Lagrange. La quantità di moto generalizzata vale dunque:
\bar q_{(\dot {\bar r})} = \bar H T_{(\bar 0)} \cdot \dot {\bar r} + \nabla T_{(\bar 0)}
Si tratta di una forma lineare dell'energia cinetica nelle velocità generalizzate. Per un sistema olonomo, in particolare, risulta:
\bar q_{(\dot {\bar r})} = \bar H T_{(\bar 0)} \cdot \dot {\bar r}
Si deve porre attenzione nel legare quantità di moto generalizzate e forze generalizzate, in quanto le quantità di moto lagrangiane sono in base alle equazioni di Lagrange del I tipo:
q_i = \int F_i - \frac{\partial T}{\partial r_i} dt = p_i - \int \frac{\partial T}{\partial r_i} dt
e differiscono quindi per il secondo termine - \int\frac{\partial T}{\partial r_i} dt dal momento coniugato p_i = \int F_i dt cui si arriverebbe tentando di generalizzare la definizione newtoniana di forza come derivata totale temporale della quantità di moto, cioè il secondo principio della dinamica.
In coordinate cartesiane, la quantità di moto generalizzata ritorna chiaramente la quantità di moto semplice, mentre in coordinate sferiche diventa il momento angolare. In generale però non ne è sempre possibile una interpretazione intuitiva.
Energia cinetica in coordinate generalizzate[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
L'energia cinetica di N particelle è data in meccanica newtoniana D-dimensionale come:
T : \R^{N D} \to \R
T_{(\dot {\bar x})} \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=} \frac {1}{2} \sum_{n=1}^{N} m_n \dot {\bar x}_n \cdot \dot {\bar x}_n
Esprimendo gli N vettori posizione newtoniani \bar x_{(\bar r)} (delle particelle rispetto ai D assi cartesiani) in funzione delle I coordinate lagrangiane r_i:
T_{(\dot {\bar r})}=\frac {1}{2} \sum_{n=1}^{N}m_n \left(\frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial t} + \sum_{i=1}^{I}\frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial r_i}\dot r_i\right)\cdot \left(\frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial t} + \sum_{j=1}^{I}\frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial r_j}\dot r_j\right) .
Svolgendo e raccogliendo nelle velocità generalizzate \dot r_i:
T_{(\dot {\bar r})}= \frac{1}{2} \sum_{n = 1}^N {m_n} (\frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial t})^2+ \sum_{i=1}^{I}\sum_{n = 1}^N {m_n} \frac{(\partial \bar x_n)^2}{\partial r_i \partial t} \dot r_i + \frac{1}{2}\sum_{i, j=1}^{I} \sum_{n = 1}^N {m_n} \frac{(\partial \bar x_n)^2}{\partial r_i \partial r_j} \dot r_i \dot r_j
se :\quad T_{(\bar 0)} \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=} \quad \frac{1}{2}\sum_{n = 1}^N {m_n} (\frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial t})^2,
\quad \nabla_i T_{(\bar 0)} \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=} \quad \frac{\partial}{\partial r_i} \sum_{n = 1}^N m_n \bar x_n \frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial t} = \sum_{n = 1}^N {m_n} \frac{(\partial \bar x_n)^2}{\partial r_i \partial t}, \, per sistemi classici in cui la massa non dipende dalle coordinate generalizzate: \nabla m_n = \bar 0, \,
\quad \bar \bar H_{ij} T_{(\bar 0)} \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=} \quad \frac{{\partial}^2}{\partial r_i \partial r_j} \sum_{n = 1}^N m_n (\bar x_n)^2 = \sum_{n = 1}^N {m_n} \frac{(\partial \bar x_n)^2}{\partial r_i \partial r_j}, \, per sistemi classici in cui la massa non dipende dalle coordinate generalizzate: \bar \bar H m_n = \bar 0.
Quindi riassumendo vettorialmente l'identità scalare:
T_{(\dot {\bar r})}= T_{(\bar 0)} + \sum_{i=1}^{I}\nabla_i T_{(\bar 0)} \dot r_i + \frac{1}{2}\sum_{i, j=1}^{I} H_{ij} T_{(\bar 0)} \dot r_i \dot r_j
si ottiene infine:
T_{(\dot {\bar r})}= T_{(\bar 0)} + \nabla T_{(\bar 0)} \cdot \dot {\bar r} + \frac{1}{2} \dot {\bar r} \cdot \bar \bar H T_{(\bar 0)} \cdot \dot {\bar r}
T : \R^I \to \R
L'energia cinetica in coordinate lagrangiane è in conclusione una serie di Taylor in I variabili del second'ordine nel vettore velocità \dot {\bar r}, definita positiva poiché lo è l'hessiana H che vi compare. Inoltre i due termini lineare \nabla T_{(\bar 0)} e costante T_{(\bar 0)} dipendono in generale dal tempo: nel caso di un sistema olonomo l'energia cinetica si riduce a
T|_{(\frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial t} = 0)} = \frac{1}{2} \dot {\bar r} \cdot \bar \bar H_{\dot {\bar r}}T_{(\bar 0)} \cdot \dot {\bar r} = \frac{1}{2} \bar p \cdot \dot {\bar r}
È importante ricordare che le coordinate lagrangiane rispetto a cui si determina l'energia cinetica hanno l'ulteriore vantaggio di non dovere necessariamente essere inerziali, a differenza di quelle cartesiane.
Forza generalizzata[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
Le forze generalizzate sono definite come in numero di I grandezze scalari, con I il grado di libertà del sistema:
F_i \stackrel{\mathrm{\Delta}}{=} \frac{\partial W}{\partial r_i} = \sum_{n = 1}^N \bar F_n \cdot \frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial r_i},
Dove W è il lavoro della risultante attiva F agente sul sistema. Si tratta quindi in termini newtoniani per variabili lunghezza e angolo rispettivamente delle grandezze forza e momento meccanico prese lungo la variabile, nel caso più generale di una combinazione delle due.
Nel caso di vincoli bilaterali permettono di ignorare nell'analisi del sistema le reazioni vincolari (di risultante R), anche per sistemi scleronomi: dato uno spostamento virtuale \delta x_n, ottenuto considerando solo gli spostamenti ammissibili con i vincoli considerati come fissi all'istante di riferimento, il lavoro virtuale agente sull'n-esima particella del sistema vale:
\delta W_n=(\bar F_n+\bar R_n)\cdot \bar \delta \bar x_n
Se i vincoli del sistema sono bilaterali, per il principio delle reazioni vincolari i lavori virtuali vincolari sono nulli, e cioè le reazioni sono ortogonali agli spostamenti virtuali:
\delta W_{i}=F_i\cdot \delta \bar x_i
Esprimendo \delta \bar x_n in funzione delle coordinate generalizzate r_i, e ricordando che \frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial t}=0 per definizione di spostamento virtuale:
\delta W_{n}=\sum_{i=1}^I \bar F_n\cdot \frac{\partial \bar x_n}{\partial r_i}\delta r_i=\sum_{i=1}^I F_{n,i} \cdot \delta r_i
Il lavoro virtuale sulla particella sottoposta a vincoli bilaterali è cioè interamente calcolabile tramite le forze generalizzate agenti su di essa. A livello ingegneristico dove è necessario risalire allo sforzo che dovrebbe essere fatto da tutte le forze non vincolari se il sistema subisse uno spostamento virtuale \delta r_h, oppure alle sollecitazioni esterne imposte realmente dai vincoli, l'approccio Lagrangiano risulta quindi particolarmente utile.
In base alle equazioni di Lagrange del I tipo e in forma di Nielsen si può legare la forza generalizzata all'energia cinetica del sistema: F_i = \dot p_i = {\partial{T}\over \partial{\dot r_i}} - 2 {\partial{T}\over \partial r_i}, Si noti ancora che la forza generalizzata differisce in generale per il secondo termine - \frac{\partial T}{\partial r_i} dalla derivata temporale della quantità di moto \dot q_i, cui si arriverebbe erroneamente inducendo una generalizzazione da una definizione di forza basata sul secondo principio della dinamica, valida solo per la dinamica newtoniana.
Bibliografia[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
• Wells, D.A., Schaum's Outline of Lagrangian Dynamics; McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, 1967.
Voci correlate[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
Collegamenti esterni[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
Meccanica Portale Meccanica: accedi alle voci di Wikipedia che trattano di Meccanica
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E-Handbook:
The ops team's role in securing IT infrastructure and apps
James Thew - Fotolia
Which IT security roles fall to the ops team?
To help secure data and applications, an IT ops team needs to do much more than put up firewalls and apply other traditional security measures. Here's where to begin.
Specter, Meltdown and similar zero-day vulnerabilities are the scary sorts of things that keep operations teams -- especially those with IT security roles -- awake at night. Fortunately for most cloud-based companies, those vulnerabilities can be addressed with the latest software updates or an adjustment to your Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud machine images. Organizations that run on serverless platforms have it even easier, needing only to wait for Amazon, Microsoft or Google to apply the patches to the underlying hardware.
Still, these vulnerabilities account for only a small fraction of the attack surface that modern-day operations teams must watch over.
To take their IT security roles seriously, these staffers need to be concerned with stolen credentials and corrupted code repositories, among numerous other threats. Custom alerts can help ops teams detect abnormal conditions, and software-testing procedures can be adjusted to include security risk detection. There's plenty for ops to do.
Consider a Node.js application launched using the serverless platform on AWS Lambda. Every dependency included in an application could potentially become compromised and lead to malicious code being installed on your site. Such a calamity could result in the loss of your users' data or your intellectual property.
Systems for continuous integration (CI) and continuous delivery (CD) allow developers to iterate much faster. This is generally a good thing, since it produces much smaller deployments and generally results in fewer bugs. Unfortunately, these CI/CD tools tend to rely on third-party systems to gather packages and requirements, and those repositories can become compromised.
One recent outage, for example, showed a critical vulnerability in the NPM code repository. Supposedly safe packages were replaced with nearly identical ones containing attack code. Since NPM packages can include build and deployment hooks as well, this could do anything from stealing AWS credentials used to deploy your application to harvesting credit card numbers and passwords. Even packages you've completely validated as safe and have been using for years could have been compromised during a new deployment.
Previously, operations teams could mitigate some of this risk simply by controlling the hardware. Also, they could put in place specialized firewalls to prevent suspicious network traffic from causing issues, such as a site trying to upload credit card numbers to a known malicious IP address. With the move to cloud serverless technologies, much of this control has been taken away from ops, even while their IT security roles remain.
Adding Detection to the CI/CD Process
For teams with well-defined CI/CD practices, the build process should already have automated unit testing in place for bugs. It's a natural progression to also require that build step to add in tests for security vulnerabilities. Many tools and organizations can help with this sort of thing, including Snyk and the Open Web Application Security Project, or OWASP. Ops teams are typically responsible for setting up these types of tools, and many of them can be set to run one-time scans before a build, as well as perform ongoing checks of production systems.
Additionally, ops teams with IT security roles or concerns may choose to create a custom in-house repository. For example, NPM Enterprise allows companies to include a feature-compatible version of NPM. This can be maintained by an internal team, behind a firewall, and it prevents the installation of third-party plug-ins that aren't pre-approved. This can lead to faster, more secure and more reliable deployments.
Anomaly detection and manual approval of suspicious requests can be useful in preventing unwanted activity.
Some attacks result from things that cannot be identified before a system is in production. For example, users' accounts can be breached. Or, even worse, a developer's account can be compromised.
With AWS, it's critically important that each service has strict identity permissions. For example, a user's API probably shouldn't have the ability to create new Elastic Compute Cloud instances or to delete users. Developers should be brought along slowly and not granted write access until after they've proven they aren't going to accidentally wipe out the entire database. And no one should have root AWS credentials, except maybe the CTO.
It's also important to make sure all identity and access management (IAM) users are required to have multifactor authentication (MFA) tokens set up, and it may be useful to turn on S3 versioning as well as require an MFA token to delete S3 objects.
It's always a good idea to back up critical data in another location -- and encrypt it, if it's sensitive. It's important to note, however, that when you store backups in different locations, you're increasing the exposure of that data to attackers. More backups are not always better.
Most cloud providers offer managed backup options. Those should always be the first choice.
Monitor for unusual activity
Even with strict policies in place and personnel focused on IT security roles, it's inevitable that something will go wrong. Credentials will either be leaked accidentally or be exposed through some malicious code installed on someone's computer.
It's important for operations teams to monitor cloud activity. For AWS users, this is typically done via CloudWatch. In Azure, consider Operational Insights, Application Insights or other monitoring tools.
It's also worth setting up custom alarms. These help you spot abnormalities, such as when an IAM account performs operations that deviate from normal patterns; that unusual behavior could indicate a system compromise.
It can be trickier to identify issues with end users. While some problems can be obvious -- such as when a user tries to log into their account from China an hour after logging in from California -- other situations aren't as readily apparent. Anomaly detection and manual approval of suspicious requests can be useful in preventing unwanted activity. Several services can help manage these types of rules, and most authentication services, such as Auth0, already provide built-in anomaly detection.
Web application firewalls can also provide added protection to your web-based access points by blocking traffic using pre-defined rules from communities, as well as custom logic based on patterns your operations team identifies.
For example, if someone is trying to access a wp-admin URL on your custom in-house application, chances are they're trying to hack into something. Many of the targeted vulnerabilities are for WordPress and applications in the PHP scripting language, so operations teams should be on the lookout for requests for suspicious URLs and be ready to block all traffic from offending IP addresses.
Dig Deeper on Systems automation and orchestration
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|
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71f077df794da2774531b20248bb19b0
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-129,190,027,616,481,140
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Skip to main content
Theory and Modern Applications
Generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials arising from Gauss hypergeometric function
Abstract
A new family of p-Bernoulli numbers and polynomials was introduced by Rahmani (J. Number Theory 157:350–366, 2015) with the help of the Gauss hypergeometric function. Motivated by that paper and in the light of the recent interests in finding degenerate versions, we construct the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials by means of the Gauss hypergeometric function. In addition, we construct the degenerate type Eulerian numbers as a degenerate version of Eulerian numbers. For the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers, we express them in terms of the degenerate Stirling numbers of the second kind, of the degenerate type Eulerian numbers, of the degenerate p-Stirling numbers of the second kind and of an integral on the unit interval. As to the generalized degenerate Bernoulli polynomials, we represent them in terms of the degenerate Stirling polynomials of the second kind.
1 Introduction
We have witnessed in recent years that many interesting arithmetic and combinatorial results were obtained in studying degenerate versions of some special polynomials and numbers (see [713] and the references therein), which was initiated by Carlitz when he introduced the degenerate Stirling, Bernoulli and Euler numbers in [3]. The studies have been done with various different tools such as combinatorial methods, generating functions, umbral calculus, p-adic analysis, differential equations, special functions, probability theory and analytic number theory. It should be noted that studying degenerate versions can be done not only for polynomials but also for transcendental functions. Indeed, the degenerate gamma functions were introduced as a degenerate version of ordinary gamma functions in [9]. The degenerate special polynomials and numbers have potential to find diverse applications in many areas just as ‘ordinary’ special polynomials and numbers play very important role in science and engineering as well as in mathematics. Indeed, it was shown in [10, 11] that the expressions of the probability distributions of appropriate random variables can be represented in terms of both the degenerate λ-Stirling polynomials of the second kind and the r-truncated degenerate λ-Stirling polynomials of the second kind.
In [14], Rahmani introduced a new family of p-Bernoulli numbers and polynomials by means of the Gauss hypergeometric function which reduce to the classical Bernoulli numbers and polynomials for \(p=0\). Motivated by that paper and as a degenerate version of those numbers and polynomials, in this paper we introduce the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials again in terms of the Gauss hypergeometric function which reduce to the Carlitz degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials for \(p=0\). In addition, we introduce the degenerate type Eulerian numbers as a degenerate version of Eulerian numbers. The aim of this paper is to study the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials and to show their connections to other special numbers and polynomials. Among other things, for the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers we express them in terms of the degenerate Stirling numbers of the second kind, of the degenerate type Eulerian numbers, of the degenerate p-Stirling numbers of the second kind and of an integral on the unit interval. As to the generalized degenerate Bernoulli polynomials, we represent them in terms of the degenerate Stirling polynomials of the second kind. For the rest of this section, we recall the necessary facts that are needed throughout this paper.
For any \(\lambda \in \mathbb{R}\), the degenerate exponential functions are defined by
$$ e_{\lambda }^{x}(t)=\sum_{n=0}^{\infty }(x)_{n,\lambda } \frac{t^{n}}{n!}, e_{\lambda }(t)=e_{\lambda }^{1}(t)\quad ( \text{see [6, 9]}), $$
(1)
where \((x)_{0,\lambda }=1, (x)_{n,\lambda }=x(x-\lambda )\cdots (x-(n-1) \lambda )\) \((n\ge 1)\). Note that \(\lim_{\lambda \rightarrow 0}e^{x}_{\lambda }(t)=e^{xt} \).
Let \(\log _{\lambda }(t)\) be the compositional inverse function of \(e_{\lambda }(t)\) with \(\log _{\lambda } (e_{\lambda }(t) )=e_{\lambda } (\log _{ \lambda }(t) )=t\). Then we have
$$ \log _{\lambda }(1+t)=\sum_{n=1}^{\infty } \lambda ^{n-1}(1)_{n,1/ \lambda }\frac{t^{n}}{n!} \quad(\text{see [7]}). $$
(2)
In [7], the degenerate Stirling numbers of the first kind are defined by
$$ (x)_{n}=\sum_{l=0}^{n}S_{1,\lambda }(n,l) (x)_{l,\lambda } \quad(n\ge 0), $$
(3)
where \((x)_{0}=1, (x)_{n}=x(x-1)(x-2)\cdots (x-n+1)\) \((n\ge 1)\).
As the inversion formula of (3), the degenerate Stirling numbers of the second kind are defined by
$$ (x)_{n,\lambda }=\sum_{k=0}^{n}S_{2,\lambda }(n,k) (x)_{k} \quad(n\ge 0)\ (\text{see [7]}). $$
(4)
From (3) and (4), we note that
$$ \frac{1}{k!} \bigl(\log _{\lambda }(1+t) \bigr)^{k}=\sum _{n=k}^{\infty }S_{1, \lambda }(n,k) \frac{t^{n}}{n!}, $$
(5)
and
$$ \frac{1}{k!} \bigl(e_{\lambda }(t)-1 \bigr)^{k}=\sum _{n=k}^{\infty }S_{2, \lambda }(n,k) \frac{t^{n}}{n!} \quad(k\ge 0)\ (\text{see [7]}). $$
(6)
It is well known that the Gauss hypergeometric function is given by
F 1 2 ( a , b c | x ) = k = 0 a k b k c k x k k ! (see [1, 2, 12]),
(7)
where \(\langle a\rangle _{0}=1, \langle a\rangle _{k}=a(a+1)\cdots (a+k-1), (k\ge 1)\).
The Euler transformation formula is given by
F 1 2 ( a , b c | x ) = ( 1 x ) c a b 2 F 1 ( c a , c b c | x ) (see [1, 2]).
(8)
The Eulerian number n k is the number of permutation \(\{1,2,3,\dots,n\}\) having k permutation ascents. The Eulerian numbers are given explicitly by the finite sum
n k = j = 0 k + 1 ( 1 ) j ( n + 1 j ) ( k j + 1 ) n (n,k0,nk)
(9)
and
k = 0 n n k =n!(see [4, 5]).
(10)
For \(n,m\ge 0\), we have
n m = k = 0 n m S 2 (n,k) ( n k m ) ( 1 ) n k m k!(see [5])
(11)
and
x n = k = 0 n n k ( x + k n ) (see [4, 5]).
(12)
Recently, the degenerate Stirling polynomials of the second kind were defined by
$$ \frac{1}{k!} \bigl(e_{\lambda }(t)-1 \bigr)^{k}e_{\lambda }^{x}(t)= \sum_{n=k}^{ \infty }S_{2,\lambda }(n,k|x) \frac{t^{n}}{n!} (k\ge 0)\quad (\text{see [8]}). $$
(13)
Thus, by (13), we get
$$\begin{aligned} S_{2,\lambda }(n,k|x) &= \sum_{l=k}^{n} \binom{n}{l}S_{2,\lambda }(l,k) (x)_{n-l, \lambda } \quad(\text{see [8]}) \\ &= \sum_{l=0}^{n}\binom{n}{l}S_{2,\lambda }(l,k) (x)_{n-l,\lambda } \quad(n\ge 0). \end{aligned}$$
(14)
For \(x=0\), \(S_{2,\lambda }(n,k)=S_{2,\lambda }(n,k|0)\) \((n,k\ge 0, n\ge k)\), are called the degenerate Stirling numbers of the second kind.
Carlitz introduced the degenerate Bernoulli polynomials given by
$$ \frac{t}{e_{\lambda }(t)-1}e_{\lambda }^{x}(t)=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty } \beta _{n,\lambda }(x)\frac{t^{n}}{n!}\quad (\text{see [3]}). $$
(15)
When \(x=0\), \(\beta _{n,\lambda }=\beta _{n,\lambda }(0)\) \((n\ge 0)\), are called the degenerate Bernolli numbers.
2 Generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers
By (1) and (2), we get
$$\begin{aligned} \frac{t}{e_{\lambda }(t)-1} &= \frac{1}{e_{\lambda }(t)-1}\sum_{n=1}^{ \infty } \lambda ^{n-1}(1)_{n,1/\lambda }\frac{1}{n!} \bigl(e_{\lambda }(t)-1 \bigr)^{n} \\ &= \sum_{k=0}^{\infty }\frac{\lambda ^{k}(1)_{k+1,1/\lambda }}{k+1} \cdot \frac{1}{k!} \bigl(e_{\lambda }(t)-1 \bigr)^{k} \\ &= \sum_{k=0}^{\infty }\frac{\lambda ^{k}(1)_{k+1,1/\lambda }}{k+1} \sum _{n=k}^{\infty }S_{2,\lambda }(n,k) \frac{t^{n}}{n!} \\ &= \sum_{n=0}^{\infty } \Biggl(\sum _{k=0}^{n} \frac{\lambda ^{k}(1)_{k+1,1/\lambda }}{k+1}S_{2,\lambda }(n,k) \Biggr) \frac{t^{n}}{n!}. \end{aligned}$$
(16)
Therefore, by (15) and (16), we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 1
For \(n\ge 0\), we have
$$\beta _{n,\lambda }=\sum_{k=0}^{n} \frac{\lambda ^{k}(1)_{k+1,1/\lambda }}{k+1}S_{2,\lambda }(n,k). $$
Replacing t by \(\log _{\lambda }(1+t)\) in (15), we get
$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\log _{\lambda }(1+t)}{e_{\lambda }(\log _{\lambda }(1+t))-1} &= \sum_{k=0}^{\infty }\beta _{k,\lambda }\frac{1}{k!} \bigl(\log _{ \lambda }(1+t) \bigr)^{k} \\ &= \sum_{k=0}^{\infty }\beta _{k,\lambda }\sum _{n=k}^{\infty }S_{1, \lambda }(n,k) \frac{t^{n}}{n!} \\ &= \sum_{n=0}^{\infty } \Biggl(\sum _{k=0}^{n}S_{1,\lambda }(n,k)\beta _{k, \lambda } \Biggr)\frac{t^{n}}{n!}. \end{aligned}$$
(17)
On the other hand, by (2), we get
$$\begin{aligned} \frac{\log _{\lambda }(1+t)}{e_{\lambda }(\log _{\lambda }(1+t))-1} &= \frac{1}{t}\log _{\lambda }(1+t) = \frac{1}{t}\sum_{n=1}^{\infty } \lambda ^{n-1}(1)_{n,1/\lambda }\frac{t^{n}}{n!} \\ &= \sum_{n=0}^{\infty }\frac{\lambda ^{n}(1)_{n+1,1/\lambda }}{n+1} \frac{t^{n}}{n!}. \end{aligned}$$
(18)
Therefore, by (17) and (18), we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 2
For \(n\ge 0\), we have
$$\sum_{k=0}^{n}S_{1,\lambda }(n,k)\beta _{k,\lambda }=\frac{1}{n+1} \lambda ^{n}(1)_{n+1,1/\lambda }. $$
From (15) and (16), we note that
n = 0 β n , λ t n n ! = 1 e λ ( t ) 1 n = 1 λ n 1 ( 1 ) n , 1 / λ 1 n ! ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) n = n = 0 ( 1 ) n ( 1 ) n + 1 , 1 / λ λ n n ! ( n + 1 ) ! ( 1 e λ ( t ) ) n n ! = n = 0 1 λ n 1 n 2 n ( 1 e λ ( t ) ) n n ! = 2 F 1 ( 1 λ , 1 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) .
(19)
In view of (19), we may consider the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers given in terms of Gauss hypergeometric function by
F 1 2 ( 1 λ , 1 p + 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) = n = 0 β n , λ ( p ) t n n ! ,
(20)
where \(p\in \mathbb{Z}\) with \(p\ge -1\). When \(p=0\), \(\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(0)}=\beta _{n,\lambda }, (n\ge 0)\).
Let us take \(p=-1\) in (20). Then we have
n = 0 β n , λ ( 1 ) t n n ! = 2 F 1 ( 1 λ , 1 1 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) = n = 0 ( λ 1 ) n n ! ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) n = n = 0 ( λ 1 n ) ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) n = e λ λ 1 ( t ) = n = 0 ( λ 1 ) n , λ t n n ! .
(21)
By comparing the coefficients on both sides of (21), we get
$$ \beta _{n,\lambda }^{(-1)}=(\lambda -1)_{n,\lambda } \quad(n\ge 0). $$
(22)
From (20), we note that
n = 0 β n , λ ( p ) t n n ! = 2 F 1 ( 1 λ , 1 p + 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) = k = 0 1 λ k 1 k p + 2 k ( 1 e λ ( t ) ) k k ! = ( p + 1 ) ! k = 0 λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ k ! ( p + k + 1 ) ! 1 k ! ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) k = ( p + 1 ) ! k = 0 λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ k ! ( p + k + 1 ) ! n = k S 2 , λ ( n , k ) t n n ! = n = 0 ( k = 0 n λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ ( p + k + 1 p + 1 ) S 2 , λ ( n , k ) ) t n n ! .
(23)
Therefore, by comparing the coefficients on both sides of (23), we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 3
For \(n\ge 0\) and \(p\ge -1\), we have
β n , λ ( p ) = k = 0 n λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ ( p + k + 1 p + 1 ) S 2 , λ (n,k).
From (6), we get
$$\begin{aligned} \sum_{n=k}^{\infty }S_{2,\lambda }(n,k) \frac{t^{n}}{n!} &= \frac{1}{k!} \bigl(e_{\lambda }(t)-1 \bigr)^{k} = \frac{1}{k!}\sum_{l=0}^{k} \binom{k}{l}(-1)^{k-l}e_{\lambda }^{l}(t) \\ &= \sum_{n=0}^{\infty } \Biggl(\frac{1}{k!} \sum_{l=0}^{k}\binom{k}{l}(-1)^{k-l}(l)_{n, \lambda } \Biggr)\frac{t^{n}}{n!}. \end{aligned}$$
(24)
By (24), we get
$$ \sum_{l=0}^{k}\binom{k}{l}(-1)^{k-l}(l)_{n,\lambda }= \textstyle\begin{cases} k!S_{2,\lambda }(n,k) & \text{if $n\ge k$}, \\ 0 & \text{otherwise.} \end{cases} $$
(25)
Let be a difference operator with \(\triangle f(x)=f(x+1)-f(x)\). Then we have
$$\triangle ^{n}f(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{n} \binom{n}{k}(-1)^{n-k}f(x+k). $$
From (25), we have
$$ k!S_{2,\lambda }(n,k)=\triangle ^{k}(0)_{n,\lambda } \quad(n,k\ge 0, n \ge k). $$
(26)
In the light of (11), we may consider the degenerate type Eulerian numbers given by
( 1 ) n m n m λ = k = 0 n m λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ ( n k m ) k ( 0 ) n , λ k ! .
(27)
By (26) and (27), we get
( 1 ) n m n m λ = k = 0 n m λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ ( n k m ) S 2 , λ (n,k).
(28)
We observe that
k = 0 n λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ S 2 , λ ( n , k ) ( t + 1 ) n k = k = 0 n λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ S 2 , λ ( n , k ) m = 0 n k ( n k m ) t m = m = 0 n ( k = 0 n m λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ S 2 , λ ( n , k ) ( n k m ) ) t m = m = 0 n ( 1 ) n m n m λ t m .
(29)
From (29) and Theorem 3, we note that
β n , λ ( p ) = k = 0 n λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ ( p + k + 1 k ) 1 S 2 , λ ( n , k ) = ( p + 1 ) k = 0 n λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ S 2 , λ ( n , k ) 0 1 t p ( 1 t ) k d t = ( p + 1 ) 0 1 k = 0 n λ k ( 1 t ) n t p ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ S 2 , λ ( n , k ) ( 1 + t 1 t ) n k d t = ( p + 1 ) 0 1 ( 1 t ) n t p k = 0 n n k λ ( 1 ) n k ( t 1 t ) k d t = ( p + 1 ) k = 0 n n k λ ( 1 ) n k 0 1 ( 1 t ) n k t p + k d t = ( p + 1 ) k = 0 n n k λ ( 1 ) n k ( n k ) ! ( p + k ) ! ( p + n + 1 ) ! = p + 1 n + p + 1 k = 0 n n k λ ( 1 ) n k ( p + n p + k ) 1 .
(30)
Therefore, by (30), we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 4
For \(n,p\ge 0\), we have
β n , λ ( p ) = p + 1 n + p + 1 k = 0 n n k λ ( 1 ) n k ( p + n p + k ) 1 .
Let r be a positive integer. The unsigned r-Stirling number of the first kind \({n \brack k}_{r}\) is the number of permutations of the set \([n]=\{1,2,3,\dots,n\}\) with exactly k disjoint cycles in such a way that the numbers \(1,2,3,\dots,r\) are in distinct cycles, while the r-Stirling number of the second kind \({n \brace k}_{r}\) counts the number of partitions of the set \([n]\) into k non-empty disjoint subsets in such a way that the numbers \(1,2,3,\dots,r\) are in distinct subsets. In [13], Kim et al. introduced the unsigned degenerate r-Stirling numbers of the first kind \({n \brack k}_{r,\lambda }\) as a degenerate version of \({n \brack k}_{r}\) and the degenerate r-Stirling number of the second kind \({n \brace k}_{r,\lambda }\) as a degenerate version of \({n \brace k}_{r}\). It is well known that the degenerate r-Stirling numbers of the second kind are given by
$$ (x+r)_{n,\lambda }=\sum_{k=0}^{n}{n+r \brace k+r}_{r,\lambda }(x)_{k}\quad (n \ge 1). $$
(31)
From (31), we note that
$$ \frac{1}{k!} \bigl(e_{\lambda }(t)-1 \bigr)^{k}e_{\lambda }^{r}(t)= \sum_{n=k}^{ \infty }{n+r \brace k+r}_{r,\lambda }\frac{t^{n}}{n!}\quad (k\ge 0, r \ge 1). $$
(32)
By the Euler transformation formula in (8) and (32), we get
n = 0 β n , λ ( p ) t n n ! = F 1 2 ( 1 λ , 1 p + 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) = e λ p + λ ( t ) k = 0 p + 1 + λ k p + 1 k p + 2 k ( 1 e λ ( t ) ) k k ! = p + 1 1 p + 1 , 1 / λ k = 0 λ k 1 p + k + 1 , 1 / λ p + k + 1 ( 1 ) k k ! ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) k e λ p + λ ( t ) = p + 1 1 p + 1 , 1 / λ k = 0 λ k 1 p + k + 1 , 1 / λ p + k + 1 ( 1 ) k m = k { m + p k + p } p , λ t m m ! ( 1 + λ t ) = m = 0 p + 1 1 p + 1 , 1 / λ k = 0 m λ k 1 p + k + 1 , 1 / λ p + k + 1 ( 1 ) k { m + p k + p } p , λ t m m ! ( 1 + λ t ) = n = 0 { p + 1 1 p + 1 , 1 / λ k = 0 n λ k 1 p + k + 1 , 1 / λ p + k + 1 ( 1 ) k { n + p k + p } p , λ } t n n ! + n = 1 { n ( p + 1 ) 1 p + 1 , 1 / λ k = 0 n 1 λ k + 1 1 p + k + 1 , 1 / λ p + k + 1 ( 1 ) k { n + p 1 k + p } p , λ } t n n ! ,
(33)
where \(\langle x\rangle _{0,\lambda }=1, \langle x\rangle _{n,\lambda }=x(x+ \lambda )\cdots (x+(n-1)\lambda ) (n\ge 1)\). Therefore, we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 5
For \(n\ge 1\) and \(p\ge 0\), we have
$$\begin{aligned} \beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}={}&\frac{p+1}{\langle 1\rangle _{p+1,1/\lambda }} \sum _{k=0}^{n} \frac{\lambda ^{k}\langle 1\rangle _{p+k+1,1/\lambda }}{p+k+1}(-1)^{k}{n+p \brace k+p}_{p,\lambda } \\ &{} +n\lambda \frac{(p+1)}{\langle 1\rangle _{p+1,1/\lambda }} \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} \frac{\lambda ^{k}\langle 1\rangle _{p+k+1,1/\lambda }}{p+k+1}(-1)^{k}{n+p-1 \brace k+p}_{p,\lambda }. \end{aligned}$$
Note that
$$\lim_{\lambda \rightarrow 0}\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}= \frac{p+1}{p!} \sum_{k=0}^{n}(-1)^{k} \frac{(p+k)!}{p+k+1}{n+p \brace k+p}_{p, \lambda }. $$
From Theorem 3, we have
n = 0 β n , λ ( p ) t n n ! = n = 0 ( k = 0 n λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ ( p + k + 1 p + 1 ) S 2 , λ ( n , k ) ) t n n ! = k = 0 λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ ( p + k + 1 p + 1 ) 1 k ! ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) k = ( p + 1 ) k = 0 p ! k ! ( k + p + 1 ) ! λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ 1 k ! ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) k = ( p + 1 ) k = 0 ( 1 ) k λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ k ! ( 1 e λ ( t ) ) k 0 1 ( 1 x ) p x k d x = ( p + 1 ) k = 0 ( 1 ) k ( λ 1 k ) ( 1 e λ ( t ) ) k 0 1 ( 1 x ) p x k d x = ( p + 1 ) 0 1 ( 1 x ) p ( 1 x ( 1 e λ ( t ) ) ) λ 1 d x .
(34)
Therefore, we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 6
For \(p\ge 0\), we have
$$\sum_{n=0}^{\infty }\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)} \frac{t^{n}}{n!}=(p+1) \int _{0}^{1}(1-x)^{p} \bigl(1-x \bigl(1-e_{\lambda }(t)\bigr) \bigr)^{\lambda -1}\,dx. $$
3 Generalized degenerate Bernoulli polynomials
In this section, we consider the generalized degenerate Bernoulli polynomials which are derived from the Gauss hypergeometric function. In the light of (20), we define the generalized degenerate Bernoulli polynomials by
n = 0 β n , λ ( p ) (x) t n n ! = 2 F 1 ( 1 λ , 1 p + 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) e λ x (t).
(35)
When \(x=0\), \(\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(0)=\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}\) \((n\ge 0)\). Thus, by (35), we get
n = 0 β n , λ ( p ) ( x ) t n n ! = 2 F 1 ( 1 λ , 1 p + 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) e λ x ( t ) = l = 0 β l , λ ( p ) t l l ! m = 0 ( x ) m , λ t m m ! = n = 0 ( l = 0 n ( n l ) β l , λ ( p ) ( x ) n l , λ ) t n n ! .
(36)
Therefore, by comparing the coefficients on both sides of (36), we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 7
For \(n\ge 0\), we have
$$\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(x)=\sum_{l=0}^{n} \binom{n}{l}\beta _{l, \lambda }^{(p)}(x)_{n-l,\lambda }. $$
From (35), we note that
n = 1 d d x β n , λ ( p ) ( x ) t n n ! = 2 F 1 ( 1 λ , 1 p + 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) d d x e λ x ( t ) = 1 λ log ( 1 + λ t ) 2 F 1 ( 1 λ , 1 p + 2 | 1 e λ ( t ) ) e λ x ( t ) = 1 λ l = 1 ( 1 ) l 1 λ l l t l m = 0 β m , λ ( p ) ( x ) t m m ! = n = 1 ( l = 1 n ( λ ) l 1 l n ! β n l , λ ( p ) ( x ) ( n l ) ! ) t n n ! .
Thus, we have
$$\frac{d}{dx}\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(x)= \sum _{l=1}^{n}(-\lambda )^{l-1}(l-1)! \binom{n}{l}\beta _{n-l,\lambda }^{(p)}(x). $$
Proposition 8
For \(n\ge 1\), we have
$$\frac{d}{dx}\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(x)= \sum _{l=1}^{n}(-\lambda )^{l-1}(l-1)! \binom{n}{l}\beta _{n-l,\lambda }^{(p)}(x). $$
By (13), we easily get
$$\begin{aligned} \sum_{n=k}^{\infty }S_{2,\lambda }(n,k|x) \frac{t^{n}}{n!} &= \frac{1}{k!} \bigl(e_{\lambda }(t)-1 \bigr)^{k}e_{\lambda }^{x}(t) \\ &= \frac{1}{k!}\sum_{l=0}^{k} \binom{k}{l}(-1)^{k-l}e_{\lambda }^{l+x}(t) \\ &= \sum_{n=0}^{\infty } \Biggl(\frac{1}{k!} \sum_{l=0}^{k}(-1)^{k-l}(l+x)_{n, \lambda } \Biggr)\frac{t^{n}}{n!}. \end{aligned}$$
Thus we have
$$ \frac{1}{k!}\sum_{l=0}^{k} \binom{k}{l}(-1)^{k-l}(l+x)_{n,\lambda }= \textstyle\begin{cases} S_{2,\lambda }(n,k|x), & \text{if $n\ge k$,} \\ 0, & \text{otherwise.} \end{cases} $$
(37)
From (37), we note that
$$S_{2,\lambda }(n,k|x)=\frac{1}{k!}\triangle ^{k}(x)_{n,\lambda }\quad (n \ge k). $$
Lemma 9
For \(n,k\ge 0\) with \(n\ge k\), we have
$$S_{2,\lambda }(n,k|x)=\frac{1}{k!}\triangle ^{k}(x)_{n,\lambda }\quad (n \ge k). $$
Now, we observe that
n = 0 β n , λ ( p ) ( x ) t n n ! = k = 0 ( p + 1 ) ! k ! ( p + k + 1 ) ! λ k ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ 1 k ! ( e λ ( t ) 1 ) k e λ x ( t ) = k = 0 ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ λ k ( p + k + 1 p + 1 ) n = k S 2 , λ ( n , k | x ) t n n ! = n = 0 ( k = 0 n ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ λ k ( p + k + 1 p + 1 ) S 2 , λ ( n , k | x ) ) t n n ! .
(38)
Therefore, by (38), we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 10
For \(n\ge 0\), we have
β n , λ ( p ) (x)= k = 0 n ( 1 ) k + 1 , 1 / λ λ k ( p + k + 1 p + 1 ) S 2 , λ (n,k|x).
Remark 11
Let p be a nonnegative integer. Then, by Theorem 7 and (35), we easily get
$$\begin{aligned} & \beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(x+y)=\sum_{k=0}^{n} \binom{n}{k}\beta _{k, \lambda }^{(p)}(x) (y)_{n-k,\lambda } \quad(n \ge 0), \\ & \beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(x+1)-\beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(x) = \sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\binom{n}{k}\beta _{k,\lambda }^{(p)}(x) (1)_{n-k, \lambda } \quad(n \ge 1), \\ & \beta _{n,\lambda }^{(p)}(mx) = \sum_{k=0}^{n} \binom{n}{k}\beta _{k, \lambda }^{(p)}(x) (m-1)^{n-k}(x)_{n-k,\lambda /m-1}\quad (n \ge 0, m \ge 2). \end{aligned}$$
4 Conclusion
This work was motivated by Rahmani’s paper [14] in which a new family of p-Bernoulli numbers and polynomials was constructed by means of the Gauss hypergeometric function. This family of numbers and polynomials generalizes the classical Bernoulli numbers and polynomials, in the sense that they reduce to the classical Bernoulli numbers and polynomials for \(p=0\). In the light of the regained recent interests in them, we were interested in finding a degenerate version of those numbers and polynomials. Indeed, the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials, which reduce to the Carlitz degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials for \(p=0\), were constucted in terms of the Gauss hypergeometric function. Moreover, the degenerate type Eulerian numbers were introduced as a degenerate version of Eulerian numbers.
In this paper, we expressed the generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers in terms of the degenerate Stirling numbers of the second kind, of the degenerate type Eulerian numbers, of the degenerate p-Stirling numbers of the second kind and of an integral on the unit interval. In addition, we represented the generalized degenerate Bernoulli polynomials in terms of the degenerate Stirling polynomials of the second kind.
It is one of our future projects to continue pursuing this line of research. Namely, by studying degenerate versions of some special polynomials and numbers, we want to find their applications in mathematics, science and engineering.
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions and Jangjeon Institute for Mathematical Science for the support of this research.
Funding
The first author has been conducted by the Research Grant of Kwangwoon University in 2021.
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TK and DSK conceived of the framework and structured the whole paper; DSK and TK wrote the paper; HL typed; LCJ, and HYK checked the results of the paper; DSK and TK completed the revision of the paper. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
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Correspondence to Lee-Chae Jang.
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Kim, T., Kim, D.S., Jang, LC. et al. Generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers and polynomials arising from Gauss hypergeometric function. Adv Differ Equ 2021, 175 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13662-021-03337-5
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• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13662-021-03337-5
MSC
• 11B68
• 11B73
• 11B83
• 33C05
Keywords
• Generalized degenerate Bernoulli numbers
• Generalized degenerate Bernoulli polynomials
• Degenerate type Eulerian numbers
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In-depth survey report of carbon monoxide emissions and exposures on express cruisers under various operating conditions
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In-depth survey report of carbon monoxide emissions and exposures on express cruisers under various operating conditions
Filetype[PDF-807.33 KB]
• English
• Details:
• Description:
"Under an interagency agreement with the United States Coast Guard, working in collaboration with an industry consultant, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) researchers evaluated carbon monoxide (CO) exposures on ten express cruiser boats from several manufacturers. The evaluated boats were new and included several different models. These boats had gasoline-powered propulsion engines and used gasoline-powered generators to provide electricity for onboard appliances. This study was performed for the U.S. Coast Guard to better understand how CO poisonings may occur on express cruisers, identify the most hazardous conditions, and begin the process of identify controls to prevent/reduce CO exposures. Boats were evaluated while stationary and at multiple speeds, ranging from 5 to 25 miles per hour. CO concentrations were measured by multiple real-time instruments, which were placed at different locations on the boats with overhead, enclosing canopies set at various configurations. Many of the evaluated boats generated hazardous CO concentrations: peak CO concentrations often exceeded 1,100 parts per million (ppm), while average CO concentrations were well over 100 ppm at the stern (rear). Two boats with a combined exhaust system (exhausting at the sides and underwater) had dramatically lower CO concentrations than any of the other evaluated boats (about 40% lower). Based on the results and observations made in this report, the following major findings are summarized below: 1. When the canvas is deployed and boat is underway, CO concentrations exceeded the immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) level near the swim platform for many of the evaluated boats. 2. The combination of travel at low speeds into the wind with the canvas fully deployed and no forward hatches, windows or front panels opened maximized the station wagon effect, pulling significant amounts of CO into the cockpit. 3. Different exhaust configurations have a major impact on how CO concentrations are entrained into the cockpit and other occupied areas. Accordingly, boats equipped with underwater exhaust exhibited significantly lower CO concentrations than vessels equipped with other exhaust designs. 4. CO concentrations are typically higher at the stern of the boat and become gradually lower toward the front of the boat. 5. Stationary smoke tests in the engine compartment showed satisfactory sealing of the bulkhead between the engine and adjacent compartments on all boats. Based on the preceding findings, the following recommendations are made to reduce CO concentrations on express cruisers: 1. Boat manufacturers should consider underwater exhaust that will significantly reduce CO concentrations inside the cockpit and other occupied areas compared to surface exhaust. 2. Because of the station wagon effect, some canvas configurations should not be used while boat is moving or propulsion and/or generator engines are running. 3. The possibility of adding force draft blowers into the cabin, creating a positive pressure to minimize potential CO intrusions, should be studied. Auxiliary blowers can be fitted and routed to ventilate the cockpit and swim platform areas in order to minimize negative pressure areas throughout the vessel. 4. Since properly sealed cabin doors directly influenced the CO concentration in the cabin area, door suppliers should be encouraged to develop better sealing methods and designs. 5. Windshield manufacturers should be encouraged to study the possibility of maximizing ventilation of occupied areas by improving the design of the center and side wings of the windshield. 7. Due care should be exercised when designing the powered ventilation system on the engine compartment, locating the air intake on the opposite side of the generator exhaust. Also, potentially moving the intake much farther forward on the vessel would help minimize the intake of CO exhaust into the engine compartment. 8. The development of cleaner burning engines (propulsion and generators) with catalytic converters should continue since they have the potential to greatly reduce CO concentrations to safer levels. 9. The American Boat and Yacht Council (ABYC) should examine their standards and emphasize ventilation problems that can lead to CO intrusions, taking a strong position against surface exhaust designs for propulsion engines." - NIOSHTIC-2 NIOSHTIC no. 20030253 289-11a.pdf
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