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969761
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark%20Kingdom
|
Dark Kingdom
|
rk Kingdom. Their leader is , named after the mineral of the same name, whose real identity is Minako's love interest Phantom Ace. After Sailor V defeats him, the group dissolves and the Dark Kingdom begins to act directly, thus leading into the Sailor Moon series. They are never mentioned in the Sailor Moon manga or other continuities.
Monsters
The are the Dark Kingdom's army of minions in every version of the series, serving as the villain of the week in every adaptation. In the manga, only Jadeite and Nephrite use monsters to assist them in their missions. In Sailor Moon Crystal, which follows the manga more closely than its predecessor, one more monster appears as the mannequin bride, a disguise that Nephrite himself uses in the manga.
In the first anime adaptation, Jadeite's, Nephrite's, and some of Zoisite's minions are real monsters, with some of them taking the form of human characters (such as Morga impersonating Naru Osaka's mother). These monsters are killed either by Sailor Moon using "Moon Tiara Action" or by other Sailor Guardians' attacks at the end of each episode. Halfway through the season, Zoisite's arc introduces the , the Dark Kingdom's most powerful monsters, reincarnated in the series' current timeline as six normal human beings and one cat, whose bodies contain the fragments of the Silver Crystal known as the seven . Zoisite uses Nephrite's Dark Crystal to transform the humans and the cat into the Seven Great Monsters. After this story arc, Kunzite also uses the crystal to transform random human characters into monsters to attack the Sailor Guardians. Monsters created from humans are returned to their human form by Sailor Moon using "Moon Healing Escalation", which restores the human while destroying the monster. In the DIC English adaptation, the Negaverse refers to the monsters as their "servants", while the Sailor Guardians and Tuxedo Mask call them "monsters" or sometimes "Negamonsters".
In the live-action series, the monsters serve much the same purpose as in the first anime adaptation. The monsters are portrayed by human actors in suits while two of them are computer-generated. They never speak and are commanded by the Four Kings of Heaven. Swarms of monsters with black hooded robes begin to appear after Sailor Moon is revealed to be the Princess. These hooded-robed monsters are loyal to Metaria rather than Beryl and the Four Heavenly Kings, and their abilities include earth-swimming and fast movement. In Act 41, the remains of these hooded-robed monsters merge into a single, extremely strong monster. In Act 45, Queen Metaria turns the monster into her host in order to absorb every bit of energy in the world. However, Metaria is soon forced by Sailor Venus to leave her host, which is then destroyed by a group attack. This monster was capable of speech when Metaria was using it as a host. In the special act Mio Kuroki, under the alias of "Queen Mio", summons a group of clown-like monsters called Pierrot.
In the musicals Gaiden Dark Kingdom Fukkatsu Hen and its revision, a new monster called is introduced. This monster disguises herself as Haruna Sakurada and acts as leader of other minor monsters. Manegin is portrayed by Kasumi Hyuug in the original musical and by Kiho Seishi in the revision. In La Reconquista, monsters are replaced by Lemures; however, despite their name, they are not related to the minions of the Dead Moon Circus. The leader of these Lemures is , who acts under Beryl's direct command. The other Lemures are unnamed. In one scene, the Lemures organize a Game Show. Baba was portrayed by Mayumi Shintani, while the other unnamed Lemures were played by Ayumi Shimozono, Asuka Yoshidome, Kumiko Saitou, Shiho Tsukagoshi, Moka Kodama, and Miki Shirai.
In the video games, several monsters from the anime make appearances as common enemies, while some of the Seven Great Monsters appear as bosses. Naoko Takeuchi herself designed some new monsters for the Super Famicom video game, named HiraHira, MuchiMuchi, and GoroGoro. Manegin from the musicals also appears in other video games.
DD Girls
The are a group of five high-ranking monsters introduced in the first anime adaptation in Episode 45. When Beryl asks her remaining monsters which of them would like to dispose of the Sailor Guardians (when they attempt to find their location) and earn their place in Dark Kingdom history, the DD Girls volunteer to kill the Sailor Guardians. They create illusions of people the Sailor Guardians care about (namely Tuxedo Mask for Usagi, Motoki Furuhata for Makoto, and Ryo Urawa for Ami) in danger or pain, to lure the Guardians into a trap. The Sailor Guardians destroy the DD Girls at the cost of their lives, ensuring that Sailor Moon reaches Beryl.
In the DiC English adaptation their name is changed to the "Doom and Gloom Girls". Episodes 45 and 46 of the original Japanese version were merged into one single episode named "Day of Destiny", altering the storyline that the Doom and Gloom Girls only captured Sailor Moon's allies, and eliminating "some of the tentacle-filled violence of the original, along with most of its emotional impact."
In the first anime series, their voice actresses are Naoko Nakamura and Asako Satou. In the DIC English adaptation they are voiced by Julie Lemieux, Nadine Rabinovitch, and Alice Poon. In the Viz Media English adaptation, they are voiced by Tara Platt and Wendee Lee.
The DD Girls appear in the Another Story video game, where they are a reincarnated Beryl's last line of defense. They also appear as bosses in other video games.
Three DD Girls appear in the first musical, Gaiden Dark Kingdom Fukkatsu Hen, played by Hisako Doubayashi, Yuko Nishi, and Mayumi Maikuma, and in its revision, played by Yuriko Nishiyama, Kaori Ishikawa, and Ai Suzuki.
Reception
When analyzing the contrast between young heroines and evil older women in manga, Kathryn Hemmann noted that "Queen Beryl is in no way girlish" and that, while the Sailor Guar
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969761
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark%20Kingdom
|
Dark Kingdom
|
usicals Gaiden Dark Kingdom Fukkatsu Hen and its revision, a new monster called is introduced. This monster disguises herself as Haruna Sakurada and acts as leader of other minor monsters. Manegin is portrayed by Kasumi Hyuug in the original musical and by Kiho Seishi in the revision. In La Reconquista, monsters are replaced by Lemures; however, despite their name, they are not related to the minions of the Dead Moon Circus. The leader of these Lemures is , who acts under Beryl's direct command. The other Lemures are unnamed. In one scene, the Lemures organize a Game Show. Baba was portrayed by Mayumi Shintani, while the other unnamed Lemures were played by Ayumi Shimozono, Asuka Yoshidome, Kumiko Saitou, Shiho Tsukagoshi, Moka Kodama, and Miki Shirai.
In the video games, several monsters from the anime make appearances as common enemies, while some of the Seven Great Monsters appear as bosses. Naoko Takeuchi herself designed some new monsters for the Super Famicom video game, named HiraHira, MuchiMuchi, and GoroGoro. Manegin from the musicals also appears in other video games.
DD Girls
The are a group of five high-ranking monsters introduced in the first anime adaptation in Episode 45. When Beryl asks her remaining monsters which of them would like to dispose of the Sailor Guardians (when they attempt to find their location) and earn their place in Dark Kingdom history, the DD Girls volunteer to kill the Sailor Guardians. They create illusions of people the Sailor Guardians care about (namely Tuxedo Mask for Usagi, Motoki Furuhata for Makoto, and Ryo Urawa for Ami) in danger or pain, to lure the Guardians into a trap. The Sailor Guardians destroy the DD Girls at the cost of their lives, ensuring that Sailor Moon reaches Beryl.
In the DiC English adaptation their name is changed to the "Doom and Gloom Girls". Episodes 45 and 46 of the original Japanese version were merged into one single episode named "Day of Destiny", altering the storyline that the Doom and Gloom Girls only captured Sailor Moon's allies, and eliminating "some of the tentacle-filled violence of the original, along with most of its emotional impact."
In the first anime series, their voice actresses are Naoko Nakamura and Asako Satou. In the DIC English adaptation they are voiced by Julie Lemieux, Nadine Rabinovitch, and Alice Poon. In the Viz Media English adaptation, they are voiced by Tara Platt and Wendee Lee.
The DD Girls appear in the Another Story video game, where they are a reincarnated Beryl's last line of defense. They also appear as bosses in other video games.
Three DD Girls appear in the first musical, Gaiden Dark Kingdom Fukkatsu Hen, played by Hisako Doubayashi, Yuko Nishi, and Mayumi Maikuma, and in its revision, played by Yuriko Nishiyama, Kaori Ishikawa, and Ai Suzuki.
Reception
When analyzing the contrast between young heroines and evil older women in manga, Kathryn Hemmann noted that "Queen Beryl is in no way girlish" and that, while the Sailor Guardians have enormous eyes, Beryl's "are narrow and shaded." Mie Hiramoto also established a contrast between Beryl and the Sailor Guardians in an analysis of anime and intertextualities, explaining that while the Guardians use Japanese women's language, Beryl uses the more formal Standard Japanese more frequently than any other character, which is typical of villains in other anime series. The inclusion of Beryl as an evil character in a line of dolls for girls has been described as a "radical idea". While reviewing shinto, feminism and anime, author Sarah Reeves considered that Beryl's overall misconduct and strategies are the result of a lack of husband and children.
Author Patrick Drazen described DIC's name change for Nephrite's disguise, Maxfield Stanton, as "ridiculously soap-opera". However, Drazen later made a later review about Nephrite's death at the hands of Zoisite's monsters and stated that this scene must have been an unexpected development for viewers used to happy endings. Drazen also cited Nephrite's death in Naru's arms as a scene of redemption, saying that him smiling and laughing during his death "would have been beyond him in the past, but love is turning him human." Kotono Mitsuishi, the voice actress of Usagi Tsukino, said she was particularly touched by this sequence. Sara Roncero-Menendez from The Huffington Post stated that the homosexual relationship between Zoisite and Kunzite in the first anime adaptation was censored in the English versions by changing Zoisite's gender from male to female. In her response to an academic essay on Sailor Moon by Mary Grigsby, author Emily Ravenwood compared Zoisite and Kunzite's relationship with that of Sailor Neptune and Sailor Uranus' explaining that "in both cases, the feminine and masculine attributes are highlighted with a heavy hand (deliberate display of stereotypes)." According to her, Kunzite and Sailor Uranus are stoic and show no emotions, with Kunzite being hyper masculinized despite the long hair; while Zoisite "is the perfect limp-wristed gay boy." In her review of the DVD+Blu-ray combo pack of the English dub for Anime News Network, writer Rebecca Silverman compared Zoisite and Kunzite to Jadeite and Nephrite, stating that the former are better strategists than the latter. In this version, Zoisite's dub is male, and Silverman described voice actor Lucien Dodge's job as "convincingly androgynous, sounding more masculine when the character is angry, which works well." In his review of season one episode "Loved and Chased! Luna's Worst Day Ever", Michael Mammano from Den of Geek described Zoisite as "perfect", even with his flaws which are "always consistent and in character". The author went on by saying that Zoisite was, up to that point of the series, the most efficient of the Four Kings of Heaven, "but also the only one of them to be genuinely suited to comedy when the situation calls for it."
IGN writer Meghan Sullivan reviewed most of the episodes of Sailor Moon C
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969762
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal%20play
|
Appeal play
|
In baseball, an appeal play occurs when a member of the defensive team calls the attention of an umpire to an infraction which he would otherwise ignore.
Appeal play situations
A runner shall be called out, after a successful live ball appeal, if he:
failed to tag up on a batted ball caught in-flight,
failed to touch a base the last time he passed it, or
failed to touch all previous bases in order
To properly execute a live ball appeal, a fielder must, with a live ball, tag the runner or base in question and communicate to the umpire what the infraction was and which runner committed the infraction. Such communication may be non-verbal, implicit, or assumed—so long as the intent of the fielder is clear to the umpire. Contrary to popular belief, an appeal out is not a force out unless it is regarding a missed force base. For example, if a runner from third base tags up and scores, but a runner from second base leaves too early, failing to tag up, and then is put out on the appeal, the run counts if it was scored before the appeal by the fielders. Rare situations with a viable appeal on a runner who misses his force base require the umpire to recognize an apparent fourth out.
Legal and viable appeals
Fielders have the right to appeal any runner at any base he has reached or passed, at any time while the ball is alive, subject to the following restrictions:
No live ball appeal may occur on a runner who misses home base (when not forced) and immediately attempts to correct his mistake; this runner must be tagged in order to be put out. (In running or sliding for home base, the runner fails to touch home base and makes no attempt to return to the base, appeal can be made and touching home base will suffice.)
When a running infraction occurs and then all playing action becomes relaxed, any live ball appeal must occur before the next pitch, play, or attempted play. An appeal itself does not count as an attempted play for the purposes of subsequent appeals.
Once a fielder properly executes a legal live ball appeal on a runner, that runner may not again be appealed at that base, even if the appeal is for a different reason.
An appeal is legal if the fielder
has the right to appeal a runner at a base,
clearly communicates to the umpire what the infraction was, and
tags the runner or base in question with a live ball.
Umpires will only rule on legal appeals. A potential appeal is viable if the appeal is legal and the umpire knows that the runner has indeed committed an infraction and will be called out if the appeal is executed by a fielder.
Example: Multiple appeals
Suppose that runners are on first and third base, and the batter hits a fly ball. The runner on third tags up, leaving third base immediately after the outfielder touches the ball. The runner seems to score, beating the throw home, but failing to touch home plate. He proceeds into his dugout without again attempting to touch home base. The runner on first base stays at first base, and action becomes relaxed while the ball is in the infield.
The fielders now suspect that the runner left third base too early and also missed the plate. Suppose that a fielder, with the live ball, touches third base and tells the nearest umpire, "I think he left too early." This is a proper legal appeal, and the umpire should rule with a safe signal, perhaps saying, "No, he was fine." Now no legal appeal may again occur on that runner at third base. Suppose then that a fielder, with the live ball, touches home base and says to the nearest umpire, "I think he never touched home." This is a legal and viable appeal, and so the umpire should call the runner out and direct that his run shall not count.
Since the ball was live (and indeed must be for appeals to be legal), the runner from first could have attempted to advance at any time during the appeals. If the defense attempts to play on that runner, their opportunity to appeal the runner from third base is lost, and the run would count regardless of any subsequent attempt to appeal.
Other appeals
A member of the defensive team may appeal to the umpire when a batter bats out of turn. The umpire then enforces the penalty for batting out of turn, if any. The ball must be live for this as for any appeal. After the appeal is made, the umpire will usually signal "Time" and figure out whether the appeal is successful.
When a batter appears to have swung at a pitch, but the plate umpire calls it a ball, a member of the defensive team (by rule the manager or catcher, though the pitcher often appeals and is usually recognized) may appeal for information from a base umpire with a better view of the pitch on whether the batter swung. The field umpire then signals whether the batter swung, and such a judgment must, by rule, prevail. The umpire asked is usually the first-base umpire (or third-base, if the batter is left-handed). The plate umpire is not required to ask for assistance if he believes the request is making a farce of the game. If the bat barely left the shoulder of the batter and the catcher appeals the "no-swing" call, the umpire will probably deny the appeal. This procedure was introduced because it is commonplace for a plate umpire to be unable to see some swings. A manager may ask an umpire to request assistance on other plays where another umpire had a better view, but the umpire is not required to do so. Such requests are common when a close home run or foul ball call is disputed, or when determining the accuracy of a close catch or no catch call.
An appeal may be executed if a fair ball becomes dead by leaving the playing field or becoming unplayable (home run, ground rule double, wild throw into stands/dugout, stuck in fence, drunk fan runs onto the field and steals the ball, etc.) if the defense believes a baserunner failed to touch a base before touching the next base to which he is entitled. For example, if the batter hits a ball which goes over the outfield fence in fair terr
|
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] |
969765
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damon%20Keith
|
Damon Keith
|
Damon Jerome Keith (July 4, 1922 – April 28, 2019) was a United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit and a former United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. He never retired, dying in office.
Education and career
Keith was born and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where he graduated from Northwestern High School in 1939. Keith then moved on to West Virginia State College where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1943. He served in the United States Army from 1943 to 1946. He then attended Howard University School of Law where he received a Bachelor of Laws in 1949, and Wayne State University Law School where he received a Master of Laws in 1956. He was in the private practice of law in Detroit from 1950 to 1967. He was an attorney in the Office of the Friend of the Court in Detroit from 1951 to 1955. In 1964 Keith was elected co-chair of the Michigan Civil Rights Commission with John Feikens and was a key player in the tumultuous times following the Detroit race riots.
Personal
Keith married Rachel Boone in 1953 and they had three daughters. Rachel died on January 4, 2007. Keith died on April 28, 2019 at his home in Detroit, at the age of 96. The cause was complications from leukemia and cardiovascular disease.
Federal judicial service
At the suggestion of United States Senator Philip Hart, Keith was nominated by President Lyndon B. Johnson on September 25, 1967, to a seat on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan vacated by Judge Thomas Patrick Thornton. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 12, 1967, and received his commission the same day. He served as Chief Judge from 1975 to 1977. His service was terminated on November 22, 1977, due to his elevation to the Sixth Circuit.
Keith was nominated by President Jimmy Carter on September 28, 1977, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit vacated by Judge Wade H. McCree. He was confirmed by the Senate on October 20, 1977, and received his commission on October 21, 1977. He was a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States from 1975 to 1978. He assumed senior status on May 1, 1995.
Memberships and honors
In 1974, Keith was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. Keith is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity. In 2008, Keith received an honorary doctorate in law (Legum Doctor) from Harvard University.
Notable cases
In United States v. Sinclair (1971), Keith famously ruled that Nixon's Attorney General John N. Mitchell had to disclose the transcripts of illegal wiretaps that Mitchell had authorized without first obtaining a search warrant. Keith's decision was upheld by the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit and the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Court's landmark decision in United States v. U.S. District Court (1972) (also known as "the Keith case") contributed in 1978 to president Jimmy Carter signing the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). That decision is commemorated as a "Michigan Legal Milestone" called "the Uninvited Ear" and erected by the State Bar of Michigan.
In Detroit Free Press v. Ashcroft (2002), Keith, writing for a unanimous panel of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, found that absolute closure of deportation hearings in "special interest" cases was unconstitutional. Under the authorization of Attorney General John Ashcroft, Chief Immigration Judge Michael Creppy told all immigration judges to close to the public and media all hearings associated with immigration that were thought to be related to September 11 investigation. These cases were advised to be handled in seclusion, "closed off from the public", and were held in special interest of national security. Officials terminated public records of the case and removed them from the court's docket. This rule of closed deportation hearings became known as the "Creppy directive".
Members of the press and public filed two of the cases challenging the Government's closure of removal proceedings. The plaintiffs in those cases are (1) the Detroit Free Press, Inc. and Herald Co., Inc. (d/b/a the Ann Arbor News) (the "free press plaintiffs") and (2) the Detroit News, Inc., Congressman John Conyers, Jr., and Metro Times, Inc. (the "Detroit News plaintiffs"); the two are collectively the "newspaper plaintiffs". The third case, filed by the ACLU of Michigan representing Rabih Haddad ("Haddad"), one of the men against whom the government had instituted removal proceedings stated that Haddad, a native of Lebanon, resided in Ann Arbor, Michigan, off and on since 1988. Haddadd came to the United States in 1998 on six-month tourist visas. On December 14, 2001, the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service ("INS") took Haddad into custody for overstaying his visa and initiated removal proceedings in Detroit before Immigration Judge Elizabeth Hacker.
Prominent past clerks
Keith has been called a father-figure to former Michigan governor Jennifer Granholm, who previously clerked for him. He administered the oath of office to her in both 2003 and 2007.
Former law clerks also include:
Lani Guinier, the first African-American woman to gain tenure at Harvard Law School
Judge Eric L. Clay, who later served with Judge Keith on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit
Ronald Machen, the former United States Attorney for the District of Columbia
David C. Simmons, the current Chief Administrative Law Judge of the District of Columbia Commission on Human Rights, professor of law at Georgetown University Law Center, and former Athletic Director of Howard University
Constance L. Rice, prominent civil rights activist and co-founder of the Advancement Project
Rashad Hussain, Deputy Associate Counsel to President Barack Obama, and the U.S. representative to the Organisation of the Islamic Conference
Jocelyn F. Benson, Michigan Secretary of State and former d
|
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] |
969793
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychrome
|
Polychrome
|
Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors.
Classical world
Some very early polychrome pottery has been excavated on Minoan Crete such as at the Bronze Age site of Phaistos. In ancient Greece sculptures were painted in strong colors. The paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural color of the stone. But it could cover sculptures in their totality. The painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art. For example, the pedimental sculptures from the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina have recently been demonstrated to have been painted with bold and elaborate patterns, depicting, amongst other details, patterned clothing. The polychrome of stone statues was paralleled by the use of materials to distinguish skin, clothing and other details in chryselephantine sculptures, and by the use of metals to depict lips, nipples, etc., on high-quality bronzes like the Riace bronzes.
An early example of polychrome decoration was found in the Parthenon atop the Acropolis of Athens. By the time European antiquarianism took off in the 18th century, however, the paint that had been on classical buildings had completely weathered off. Thus, the antiquarians' and architects' first impressions of these ruins were that classical beauty was expressed only through shape and composition, lacking in robust colors, and it was that impression which informed neoclassical architecture. However, some classicists such as Jacques Ignace Hittorff noticed traces of paint on classical architecture and this slowly came to be accepted. Such acceptance was later accelerated by observation of minute color traces by microscopic and other means, enabling less tentative reconstructions than Hittorff and his contemporaries had been able to produce. An example of classical Greek architectural polychrome may be seen in the full size replica of the Parthenon exhibited in Nashville, Tennessee, US.
Medieval world
Throughout medieval Europe religious sculptures in wood and other media were often brightly painted or colored, as were the interiors of church buildings. These were often destroyed or whitewashed during iconoclast phases of the Protestant Reformation or in other unrest such as the French Revolution, though some have survived in museums such as the V&A, Musée de Cluny and Louvre. The exteriors of churches were painted as well, but little has survived. Exposure to the elements and changing tastes and religious approval over time acted against their preservation. The "Majesty Portal" of the Collegiate church of Toro is the most extensive remaining example, due to the construction of a chapel which enclosed and protected it from the elements just a century after it was completed.
Baroque and Rococo periods
While stone and metal sculpture normally remained uncolored, like the classical survivals, polychromed wood sculptures were produced by Spanish artists: Juan Martínez Montañés, Gregorio Fernández (17th century); German: Ignaz Günther, Philipp Jakob Straub (18th century), or Brazilian: Aleijadinho (19th century).
With the arrival of European porcelain in the 18th century, brightly colored pottery figurines with a wide range of colors became very popular.
19th century polychrome brickwork
Polychrome brickwork is a style of architectural brickwork which emerged in the 1860s and used bricks of different colors (typically brown, cream and red) in patterned combination to highlight architectural features. It was often used to replicate the effect of quoining and to decorate around windows. Early examples featured banding, with later examples exhibiting complex diagonal, criss-cross, and step patterns, in some cases even writing using bricks.
20th century
In the twentieth century there were notable periods of polychromy in architecture, from the expressions of Art Nouveau throughout Europe, to the international flourishing of Art Deco or Art Moderne, to the development of postmodernism in the latter decades of the century. During these periods, brickwork, stone, tile, stucco and metal facades were designed with a focus on the use of new colors and patterns, while architects often looked for inspiration to historical examples ranging from Islamic tilework to English Victorian brick. In the 1970s and 1980s, especially, architects working with bold colors included Robert Venturi (Allen Memorial Art Museum addition; Best Company Warehouse), Michael Graves (Snyderman House; Humana Building), and James Stirling (Neue Staatsgalerie; Arthur M. Sackler Museum), among others.
United States
Polychrome building facades later rose in popularity as a way of highlighting certain trim features in Victorian and Queen Anne architecture in the United States. The rise of the modern paint industry following the American Civil War also helped to fuel the (sometimes extravagant) use of multiple colors.
The polychrome facade style faded with the rise of the 20th century's revival movements, which stressed classical colors applied in restrained fashion and, more importantly, with the birth of modernism, which advocated clean, unornamented facades rendered in white stucco or paint. Polychromy reappeared with the flourishing of the preservation movement and its embrace of (what had previously been seen as) the excesses of the Victorian era and in San Francisco, California in the 1970s to describe its abundant late-nineteenth-century houses. These earned the endearment 'Painted Ladies', a term that in modern times is considered kitsch when it is applied to describe all Victorian houses that have been painted with period colors.
John Joseph Earley (1881–1945) developed a "polychrome" process of concrete slab construction and orna
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969799
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Capano
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Thomas Capano
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Thomas Joseph Capano (October 11, 1949 – September 19, 2011) was a disbarred American lawyer and former Delaware deputy attorney general who was convicted of the 1996 murder of Anne Marie Fahey, his former lover.
Background
Thomas Capano was one of four brothers, and belonged to a prominent family of Delaware real estate developers and building contractors. He became an affluent lawyer, state prosecutor, Wilmington city attorney, legal counsel to Governor Mike Castle, and political consultant, well known in Delaware's political circles.
In 1994, Capano was a partner at the Wilmington office of Saul Ewing LLP when he became involved with 28-year-old Anne Marie Fahey, the appointments secretary to then-Governor Tom Carper. Married with four daughters, Capano separated from his wife Kay the following year. In September 1995, while still involved with Capano, Fahey began another relationship with Michael Scanlan.
Fahey's disappearance and investigation
Fahey was last seen alive on June 27, 1996, when she went to dinner with Capano in Philadelphia. Fahey's family reported her missing on June 30. After an extensive search, the FBI joined in the investigation in July and a federal grand jury heard evidence for over a year. Capano, the last known person to have seen Fahey alive, was the prime suspect. He was arrested for her murder in November 1997, over sixteen months after her disappearance. However, Fahey's body was never found, and prosecutors were unable to establish the cause or manner of her death.
Prosecutors alleged that Capano murdered Fahey at the house he rented and, with the assistance of his brother Gerry, dumped her body in the Atlantic Ocean. Gerry owned a boat and, when it was sold, its two anchors were missing. On November 8, 1997, Gerry was interviewed by detectives and told them that Capano had borrowed the boat and admitted that he had murdered someone who was attempting to extort him. They went to Stone Harbor, New Jersey, with a large cooler that contained Fahey's body, sailed out to sea, and pushed the cooler overboard. Gerry told police that Capano shot the cooler in order to sink it, but that the cooler remained afloat in the water. Capano then retrieved the cooler, removed the body, and wrapped the anchor chains around it. He also asked Gerry to help dispose of a blood-stained sofa and carpet into a dumpster, which was managed by a third brother, Louis. Capano instructed Louis to empty the dumpsters outside of their regular schedule. The empty cooler was found on July 4, 1996, by a local fisherman.
Investigators did not have a murder weapon or a body, nor any evidence that Capano had purchased a gun. However, Capano's other mistress, Debby MacIntyre, had bought a gun and admitted having supplied the weapon to Capano.
Trial and appeals
The highly publicized case went to trial on October 26, 1998, and lasted twelve weeks. The defense claimed that MacIntyre had burst into Capano's room and, in a jealous rage upon seeing Capano and Fahey engaged in intimacy, had threatened to shoot herself; as Capano and MacIntyre were wrestling for the gun, it discharged and killed Fahey. On January 17, 1999, the jury convicted Capano of first-degree murder and he was sentenced to death by lethal injection.
In January 2006, the Delaware Supreme Court affirmed Capano's conviction but remanded the case for sentencing because the death penalty was imposed by a non-unanimous jury verdict. In February of that year, the state abandoned its efforts to seek capital punishment, opting to leave Capano imprisoned for life without parole. In April 2008, the U.S. District Court rejected Capano's habeas corpus petition, and on September 2, 2008, the U.S. 3rd Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed. Capano did not appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, bringing an end to his appeals.
Death
Capano, aged 61, was found dead in his jail cell at 12:34 p.m. on September 19, 2011, by an officer performing a routine security check at the James T. Vaughn Correctional Center state prison in Smyrna, Delaware. The medical examiner determined that Capano died of sudden cardiac arrest. He also had "atherosclerotic and hypertensive cardiovascular disease, and that obesity was a contributing factor in his death". Following Capano's death, his brothers Louis and Joseph engaged in a bitter court fight over their family's multimillion-dollar real estate empire.
Portrayals
Several books were written about the case, including And Never Let Her Go: Thomas Capano: The Deadly Seducer by Ann Rule, The Summer Wind: Thomas Capano and the Murder of Anne Marie Fahey by George Anastasia, and Fatal Embrace: The Inside Story of the Thomas Capano/Anne Marie Fahey Murder Case by Chris Barrish and Peter Meyer. In 2001, a television movie based on Rule's book was made, And Never Let Her Go, starring Mark Harmon as Capano and Kathryn Morris as Fahey.
A 2000 episode of The FBI Files, title "Deadly Obsession," and a July 22, 2002 episode of the CBS News documentary program 48 Hours featured the case. In 2012, the story was featured on Behind Mansion Walls. The case was portrayed in Law and Order season 11 in an episode titled "Ego". The case was also portrayed in the Season 1, Third Episode of the NBC series Boomtown (October 13, 2002). Also featured in a 2018 episode of Vanity Fair Confidential titled "The Secret of the Summer Wind."
References
External links
Ramsland, Katherine. "The Rise and Fall of Thomas Capano". Crime Library
FATAL ATTRACTION: BEHIND THE FACADE, Capano: Politically Powerful, Charismatic, 48 Hours, CBS News, 14. Oktober 1999
1949 births
2011 deaths
20th-century American lawyers
American people who died in prison custody
American political consultants
American prisoners sentenced to death
American prosecutors
American people convicted of murder
Delaware lawyers
Disbarred American lawyers
People convicted of murder by Delaware
People from Wilmington, Delaware
Place of birth missing
Prisoners sentenced to death by Dela
|
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969803
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold%20Henry%20Guyot
|
Arnold Henry Guyot
|
Arnold Henry Guyot ( ) (September 28, 1807February 8, 1884) was a Swiss-American geologist and geographer.
Early life
Guyot was born on September 28, 1807, at Boudevilliers, near Neuchâtel, Switzerland. He was educated at Chaux-de-Fonds, then at the college of Neuchâtel. In 1825, he went to Germany and resided in Karlsruhe where he met Louis Agassiz, the beginning of a lifelong friendship. From Karlsruhe he moved to Stuttgart, where he studied at the gymnasium. He returned to Neuchâtel in 1827. He determined to enter the ministry and started at the University of Berlin to attend lectures. While pursuing his studies, he also attended lectures on philosophy and natural science. His leisure time was spent in collecting shells and plants, and he received an entrée to the Berlin Botanical Garden from Humboldt. In 1835, he received the degree of PhD from Berlin.
Scientific career
In 1838, at Agassiz's suggestion, he visited the Swiss glaciers and communicated the results of his six-week investigation to the Geological Society of France. He was the first to point out certain important observations relating to glacial motion and structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid flow of the center than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of the top than of the bottom of glaciers; described the laminated or ribboned structure of the glacial ice; and ascribed the movement of glaciers to a gradual molecular displacement rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held by de Saussure. He subsequently collected important data concerning erratic boulders.
In 1839, he became the colleague of Agassiz as professor of history and physical geography at the College of Neuchâtel (a.k.a. Neuchâtel Academy). The suspension of that institution in 1848 caused Guyot to emigrate, at Agassiz's instance, to the United States, where he settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He delivered a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute which were afterward published as Earth and Man (Boston 1849). For several years the Massachusetts Board of Education retained his services as a lecturer on geography and methods of instruction to the normal schools and teachers' institutes.
He was occupied with this work until his appointment, in 1854, as professor of physical geography and geology at Princeton University, which office he retained until his death. He was also for several years lecturer on physical geography in the State Normal School in Trenton, New Jersey, and from 1861 to 1866 lecturer in the Princeton Theological Seminary. He also gave courses in the Union Theological Seminary, New York, and at Columbia College. He founded the museum at Princeton (now closed), many of the specimens of which came from his own collections.
He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1867.
His scientific work in the United States included the perfection of plans for a national system of meteorological observations. Most of these were conducted under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution. His extensive meteorological observations led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau, and his Meteorological and Physical Tables (1852, revised ed. 1884) were long standard.
A guyot, also known as a tablemount, is an isolated underwater volcanic mountain (seamount), with a flat top over 200 metres (660 feet) below the surface of the sea. The diameters of these flat summits can exceed . The term "guyot" was coined by Harry Hammond Hess and named after the eponymous building on Princeton University campus, itself named after Arnold Guyot.
Guyot rejected Darwin's theory of human evolution and, at the same time, he accepted Hugh Miller's views on the book of Genesis, thinking that the days described there might have taken a longer period of time. Scientist James Dwight Dana described Guyot as "a fervently religious man, living as if ever in communion with his Heavenly Parent; a Christian, following closely in the footsteps of his Master."
Guyot's Creation, or the Biblical Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science (1884) was critically reviewed in the Science journal.
Contributions to scientific racism
Arnold Guyot's lecture series (published as Earth and Man) describes how geography, particularly the distribution of continents, topography, and climate regions, determines the superiority or inferiority of human races in terms of beauty, physical ability, intelligence, and morality.
Through these lectures, Guyot promulgated theories of scientific racism to a wide audience in New England, including the general public and teachers who were eager to incorporate this material into their classes. Guyot is estimated to have reached about 1500 teachers during this tour.
Writings
His graded series of text books and wall maps were important aids in the extension and popularization of geological study in America. In addition to text books, his principal publications were:
[https://archive.org/details/earthmanlectures00guyoiala Earth and Man, Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the History of Mankind] (translated by Cornelius Conway Felton, 1849)
A Memoir of Louis Agassiz (1883)
Creation, or the Biblical Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science (1884)
Johnson's New Universal Cyclopaedia (1876) - editor-in-chief along with Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard
Namesakes
He is the namesake of several geographical features, including Guyot Glacier in Alaska, The Guyot Crater, Mount Guyot on the North Carolina and Tennessee border, a Mount Guyot in New Hampshire, a Mount Guyot on the Rocky Mountain Continental Divide in Colorado, as well as a Mount Guyot just southwest of Mt. Whitney, in California. The building housing the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and the Department of Geosciences at Princeton is named Guyot Hall in his honor.
Death
Guyot died on February 8, 1884, at Princeton, New Jersey.
Notes
References
James Dwight Dana's Memoir in the Biographical Memoirs of
|
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] |
969821
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT%20signaling%20pathway
|
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
|
The JAK-STAT signaling pathway is a chain of interactions between proteins in a cell, and is involved in processes such as immunity, cell division, cell death and tumour formation. The pathway communicates information from chemical signals outside of a cell to the cell nucleus, resulting in the activation of genes through a process called transcription. There are three key parts of JAK-STAT signalling: Janus kinases (JAKs), signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins (STATs), and receptors (which bind the chemical signals). Disrupted JAK-STAT signalling may lead to a variety of diseases, such as skin conditions, cancers, and disorders affecting the immune system.
Structure of JAKs and STATs
Main articles: JAKs and STATs
There are four JAK proteins: JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 and TYK2. JAKs contains a FERM domain (approximately 400 residues), an SH2-related domain (approximately 100 residues), a kinase domain (approximately 250 residues) and a pseudokinase domain (approximately 300 residues). The kinase domain is vital for JAK activity, since it allows JAKs to phosphorylate (add phosphate groups to) proteins.
There are seven STAT proteins: STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5A, STAT5B and STAT6. STAT proteins contain many different domains, each with a different function, of which the most conserved region is the SH2 domain. The SH2 domain is formed of 2 α-helices and a β-sheet and is formed approximately from residues 575–680. STATs also have transcriptional activation domains (TAD), which are less conserved and are located at the C-terminus. In addition, STATs also contain: tyrosine activation, amino-terminal, linker, coiled-coil and DNA-binding domains.
Mechanism
The binding of various ligands, usually cytokines, such as interferons and interleukins, to cell-surface receptors, causes the receptors to dimerize, which brings the receptor-associated JAKs into close proximity. The JAKs then phosphorylate each other on tyrosine residues located in regions called activation loops, through a process called transphosphorylation, which increases the activity of their kinase domains. The activated JAKs then phosphorylate tyrosine residues on the receptor, creating binding sites for proteins possessing SH2 domains. STATs then bind to the phosphorylated tyrosines on the receptor using their SH2 domains, and then they are tyrosine-phosphorylated by JAKs, causing the STATs to dissociate from the receptor. At least STAT5 requires glycosylation at threonine 92 for strong STAT5 tyrosine phosphorylation. These activated STATs form hetero- or homodimers, where the SH2 domain of each STAT binds the phosphorylated tyrosine of the opposite STAT, and the dimer then translocates to the cell nucleus to induce transcription of target genes. STATs may also be tyrosine-phosphorylated directly by receptor tyrosine kinases - but since most receptors lack built-in kinase activity, JAKs are usually required for signalling.
Movement of STATs from the cytosol to the nucleus
To move from the cytosol to the nucleus, STAT dimers have to pass through nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), which are protein complexes present along the nuclear envelope that control the flow of substances in and out of the nucleus. To enable STATs to move into the nucleus, an amino acid sequence on STATs, called the nuclear localization signal (NLS), is bound by proteins called importins. Once the STAT dimer (bound to importins) enters the nucleus, a protein called Ran (associated with GTP) binds to the importins, releasing them from the STAT dimer. The STAT dimer is then free in the nucleus.
Specific STATs appear to bind to specific importin proteins. For example, STAT3 proteins can enter the nucleus by binding to importin α3 and importin α6. On the other hand, STAT1 and STAT2 bind to importin α5. Studies indicate that STAT2 requires a protein called interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) to enter the nucleus. Not as much is known about nuclear entrance of other STATs, but it has been suggested that a sequence of amino acids in the DNA-binding domain of STAT4 might allow nuclear import; also, STAT5 and STAT6 can both bind to importin α3. In addition, STAT3, STAT5 and STAT6 can enter the nucleus even if they are not phosphorylated at tyrosine residues.
Role of post-translational modifications
After STATs are made by protein biosynthesis, they have non-protein molecules attached to them, called post-translational modifications. One example of this is tyrosine phosphorylation (which is fundamental for JAK-STAT signalling), but STATs experience other modifications, which may affect STAT behaviour in JAK-STAT signalling. These modifications include: methylation, acetylation and serine phosphorylation.
Methylation. STAT3 can be dimethylated (have two methyl groups) on a lysine residue, at position 140, and it is suggested that this could reduce STAT3 activity. There is debate as to whether STAT1 is methylated on an arginine residue (at position 31), and what the function of this methylation could be.
Acetylation. STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT5 and STAT6 have been shown to be acetylated. STAT1 may have an acetyl group attached to lysines at positions 410 and 413, and as a result, STAT1 can promote the transcription of apoptotic genes - triggering cell death. STAT2 acetylation is important for interactions with other STATs, and for the transcription of anti-viral genes.
Acetylation of STAT3 has been suggested to be important for its dimerization, DNA-binding and gene-transcribing ability, and IL-6 JAK-STAT pathways that use STAT3 require acetylation for transcription of IL-6 response genes.
STAT5 acetylation on lysines at positions 694 and 701 is important for effective STAT dimerization in prolactin signalling. Adding acetyl groups to STAT6 is suggested to be essential for gene transcription in some forms of IL-4 signalling, but not all the amino acids which are acetylated on STAT6 are known.
Serine phosphorylation. Most of the seven STATs (ex
|
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] |
969821
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT%20signaling%20pathway
|
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
|
ucleus
To move from the cytosol to the nucleus, STAT dimers have to pass through nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), which are protein complexes present along the nuclear envelope that control the flow of substances in and out of the nucleus. To enable STATs to move into the nucleus, an amino acid sequence on STATs, called the nuclear localization signal (NLS), is bound by proteins called importins. Once the STAT dimer (bound to importins) enters the nucleus, a protein called Ran (associated with GTP) binds to the importins, releasing them from the STAT dimer. The STAT dimer is then free in the nucleus.
Specific STATs appear to bind to specific importin proteins. For example, STAT3 proteins can enter the nucleus by binding to importin α3 and importin α6. On the other hand, STAT1 and STAT2 bind to importin α5. Studies indicate that STAT2 requires a protein called interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) to enter the nucleus. Not as much is known about nuclear entrance of other STATs, but it has been suggested that a sequence of amino acids in the DNA-binding domain of STAT4 might allow nuclear import; also, STAT5 and STAT6 can both bind to importin α3. In addition, STAT3, STAT5 and STAT6 can enter the nucleus even if they are not phosphorylated at tyrosine residues.
Role of post-translational modifications
After STATs are made by protein biosynthesis, they have non-protein molecules attached to them, called post-translational modifications. One example of this is tyrosine phosphorylation (which is fundamental for JAK-STAT signalling), but STATs experience other modifications, which may affect STAT behaviour in JAK-STAT signalling. These modifications include: methylation, acetylation and serine phosphorylation.
Methylation. STAT3 can be dimethylated (have two methyl groups) on a lysine residue, at position 140, and it is suggested that this could reduce STAT3 activity. There is debate as to whether STAT1 is methylated on an arginine residue (at position 31), and what the function of this methylation could be.
Acetylation. STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT5 and STAT6 have been shown to be acetylated. STAT1 may have an acetyl group attached to lysines at positions 410 and 413, and as a result, STAT1 can promote the transcription of apoptotic genes - triggering cell death. STAT2 acetylation is important for interactions with other STATs, and for the transcription of anti-viral genes.
Acetylation of STAT3 has been suggested to be important for its dimerization, DNA-binding and gene-transcribing ability, and IL-6 JAK-STAT pathways that use STAT3 require acetylation for transcription of IL-6 response genes.
STAT5 acetylation on lysines at positions 694 and 701 is important for effective STAT dimerization in prolactin signalling. Adding acetyl groups to STAT6 is suggested to be essential for gene transcription in some forms of IL-4 signalling, but not all the amino acids which are acetylated on STAT6 are known.
Serine phosphorylation. Most of the seven STATs (except STAT2) undergo serine phosphorylation. Serine phosphorylation of STATs has been shown to reduce gene transcription. It is also required for the transcription of some target genes of the cytokines IL-6 and IFN- γ. It has been proposed that phosphorylation of serine can regulate STAT1 dimerization, and that continuous serine phosphorylation on STAT3 influences cell division.
Recruitment of co-activators
Like many other transcription factors, STATs are capable of recruiting co-activators such as CBP and p300, and these co-activators increase the rate of transcription of target genes. The coactivators are able to do this by making genes on DNA more accessible to STATs and by recruiting proteins needed for transcription of genes. The interaction between STATs and coactivators occurs through the transactivation domains (TADs) of STATs. The TADs on STATs can also interact with histone acetyltransferases (HATs); these HATs add acetyl groups to lysine residues on proteins associated with DNA called histones. Adding acetyl groups removes the positive charge on lysine residues, and as a result there are weaker interactions between histones and DNA, making DNA more accessible to STATs and enabling an increase in the transcription of target genes.
Integration with other signalling pathways
JAK-STAT signalling is able to interconnect with other cell-signalling pathways, such as the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. When JAKs are activated and phosphorylate tyrosine residues on receptors, proteins with SH2 domains (such as STATs) are able bind to the phosphotyrosines, and the proteins can carry out their function. Like STATs, the PI3K protein also has an SH2 domain, and therefore it is also able to bind to these phosphorylated receptors. As a result, activating the JAK-STAT pathway can also activate PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling.
JAK-STAT signalling can also integrate with the MAPK/ERK pathway. Firstly, a protein important for MAPK/ERK signalling, called Grb2, has an SH2 domain, and therefore it can bind to receptors phosphorylated by JAKs (in a similar way to PI3K). Grb2 then functions to allow the MAPK/ERK pathway to progress. Secondly, a protein activated by the MAPK/ERK pathway, called MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), can phosphorylate STATs, which can increase gene transcription by STATs. However, although MAPK can increase transcription induced by STATs, one study indicates that phosphorylation of STAT3 by MAPK can reduce STAT3 activity.
One example of JAK-STAT signalling integrating with other pathways is Interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor signaling in T cells. IL-2 receptors have γ (gamma) chains, which are associated with JAK3, which then phosphorylates key tyrosines on the tail of the receptor. Phosphorylation then recruits an adaptor protein called Shc, which activates the MAPK/ERK pathway, and this facilitates gene regulation by STAT5.
Alternative signalling pathway
An alternative mechanism for JAK-STAT signalling has also been suggested. In this m
|
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] |
969821
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT%20signaling%20pathway
|
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
|
cept STAT2) undergo serine phosphorylation. Serine phosphorylation of STATs has been shown to reduce gene transcription. It is also required for the transcription of some target genes of the cytokines IL-6 and IFN- γ. It has been proposed that phosphorylation of serine can regulate STAT1 dimerization, and that continuous serine phosphorylation on STAT3 influences cell division.
Recruitment of co-activators
Like many other transcription factors, STATs are capable of recruiting co-activators such as CBP and p300, and these co-activators increase the rate of transcription of target genes. The coactivators are able to do this by making genes on DNA more accessible to STATs and by recruiting proteins needed for transcription of genes. The interaction between STATs and coactivators occurs through the transactivation domains (TADs) of STATs. The TADs on STATs can also interact with histone acetyltransferases (HATs); these HATs add acetyl groups to lysine residues on proteins associated with DNA called histones. Adding acetyl groups removes the positive charge on lysine residues, and as a result there are weaker interactions between histones and DNA, making DNA more accessible to STATs and enabling an increase in the transcription of target genes.
Integration with other signalling pathways
JAK-STAT signalling is able to interconnect with other cell-signalling pathways, such as the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. When JAKs are activated and phosphorylate tyrosine residues on receptors, proteins with SH2 domains (such as STATs) are able bind to the phosphotyrosines, and the proteins can carry out their function. Like STATs, the PI3K protein also has an SH2 domain, and therefore it is also able to bind to these phosphorylated receptors. As a result, activating the JAK-STAT pathway can also activate PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling.
JAK-STAT signalling can also integrate with the MAPK/ERK pathway. Firstly, a protein important for MAPK/ERK signalling, called Grb2, has an SH2 domain, and therefore it can bind to receptors phosphorylated by JAKs (in a similar way to PI3K). Grb2 then functions to allow the MAPK/ERK pathway to progress. Secondly, a protein activated by the MAPK/ERK pathway, called MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), can phosphorylate STATs, which can increase gene transcription by STATs. However, although MAPK can increase transcription induced by STATs, one study indicates that phosphorylation of STAT3 by MAPK can reduce STAT3 activity.
One example of JAK-STAT signalling integrating with other pathways is Interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor signaling in T cells. IL-2 receptors have γ (gamma) chains, which are associated with JAK3, which then phosphorylates key tyrosines on the tail of the receptor. Phosphorylation then recruits an adaptor protein called Shc, which activates the MAPK/ERK pathway, and this facilitates gene regulation by STAT5.
Alternative signalling pathway
An alternative mechanism for JAK-STAT signalling has also been suggested. In this model, SH2 domain-containing kinases, can bind to phosphorylated tyrosines on receptors and directly phosphorylate STATs, resulting in STAT dimerization. Therefore, unlike the traditional mechanism, STATs can be phosphorylated not just by JAKs, but by other receptor-bound kinases. So, if one of the kinases (either JAK or the alternative SH2-containing kinase) cannot function, signalling may still occur through activity of the other kinase. This has been shown experimentally.
Role in cytokine receptor signalling
Given that many JAKs are associated with cytokine receptors, the JAK-STAT signalling pathway plays a major role in cytokine receptor signalling. Since cytokines are substances produced by immune cells that can alter the activity of neighbouring cells, the effects of JAK-STAT signalling are often more highly seen in cells of the immune system. For example, JAK3 activation in response to IL-2 is vital for lymphocyte development and function. Also, one study indicates that JAK1 is needed to carry out signalling for receptors of the cytokines IFNγ, IL-2, IL-4 and IL-10.
The JAK-STAT pathway in cytokine receptor signalling can activate STATs, which can bind to DNA and allow the transcription of genes involved in immune cell division, survival, activation and recruitment. For example, STAT1 can enable the transcription of genes which inhibit cell division and stimulate inflammation. Also, STAT4 is able to activate NK cells (natural killer cells), and STAT5 can drive the formation of white blood cells. In response to cytokines, such as IL-4, JAK-STAT signalling is also able to stimulate STAT6, which can promote B-cell proliferation, immune cell survival, and the production of an antibody called IgE.
Role in development
JAK-STAT signalling plays an important role in animal development. The pathway can promote blood cell division, as well as differentiation (the process of a cell becoming more specialised). In some flies with faulty JAK genes, too much blood cell division can occur, potentially resulting in leukaemia. JAK-STAT signalling has also been associated with excessive white blood cell division in humans and mice.
The signalling pathway is also crucial for eye development in the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). When mutations occur in genes coding for JAKs, some cells in the eye may be unable to divide, and other cells, such as photoreceptor cells, have been shown not to develop correctly.
The entire removal of a JAK and a STAT in Drosophila causes death of Drosophila embryos, whilst mutations in the genes coding for JAKs and STATs can cause deformities in the body patterns of flies, particularly defects in forming body segments. One theory as to how interfering with JAK-STAT signalling might cause these defects is that STATs may directly bind to DNA and promote the transcription of genes involved in forming body segments, and therefore by mutating JAKs or STATs, flies experience segmentation defects. STAT binding sites have been
|
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] |
969821
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT%20signaling%20pathway
|
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
|
odel, SH2 domain-containing kinases, can bind to phosphorylated tyrosines on receptors and directly phosphorylate STATs, resulting in STAT dimerization. Therefore, unlike the traditional mechanism, STATs can be phosphorylated not just by JAKs, but by other receptor-bound kinases. So, if one of the kinases (either JAK or the alternative SH2-containing kinase) cannot function, signalling may still occur through activity of the other kinase. This has been shown experimentally.
Role in cytokine receptor signalling
Given that many JAKs are associated with cytokine receptors, the JAK-STAT signalling pathway plays a major role in cytokine receptor signalling. Since cytokines are substances produced by immune cells that can alter the activity of neighbouring cells, the effects of JAK-STAT signalling are often more highly seen in cells of the immune system. For example, JAK3 activation in response to IL-2 is vital for lymphocyte development and function. Also, one study indicates that JAK1 is needed to carry out signalling for receptors of the cytokines IFNγ, IL-2, IL-4 and IL-10.
The JAK-STAT pathway in cytokine receptor signalling can activate STATs, which can bind to DNA and allow the transcription of genes involved in immune cell division, survival, activation and recruitment. For example, STAT1 can enable the transcription of genes which inhibit cell division and stimulate inflammation. Also, STAT4 is able to activate NK cells (natural killer cells), and STAT5 can drive the formation of white blood cells. In response to cytokines, such as IL-4, JAK-STAT signalling is also able to stimulate STAT6, which can promote B-cell proliferation, immune cell survival, and the production of an antibody called IgE.
Role in development
JAK-STAT signalling plays an important role in animal development. The pathway can promote blood cell division, as well as differentiation (the process of a cell becoming more specialised). In some flies with faulty JAK genes, too much blood cell division can occur, potentially resulting in leukaemia. JAK-STAT signalling has also been associated with excessive white blood cell division in humans and mice.
The signalling pathway is also crucial for eye development in the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). When mutations occur in genes coding for JAKs, some cells in the eye may be unable to divide, and other cells, such as photoreceptor cells, have been shown not to develop correctly.
The entire removal of a JAK and a STAT in Drosophila causes death of Drosophila embryos, whilst mutations in the genes coding for JAKs and STATs can cause deformities in the body patterns of flies, particularly defects in forming body segments. One theory as to how interfering with JAK-STAT signalling might cause these defects is that STATs may directly bind to DNA and promote the transcription of genes involved in forming body segments, and therefore by mutating JAKs or STATs, flies experience segmentation defects. STAT binding sites have been identified on one of these genes, called even-skipped (eve), to support this theory. Of all the segment stripes affected by JAK or STAT mutations, the fifth stripe is affected the most, the exact molecular reasons behind this are still unknown.
Regulation
Given the importance of the JAK-STAT signalling pathway, particularly in cytokine signalling, there are a variety of mechanisms that cells possess to regulate the amount of signalling that occurs. Three major groups of proteins that cells use to regulate this signalling pathway are protein inhibitors of activated STAT (PIAS), protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) and suppressors of cytokine signalling (SOCS). Computational models of JAK-STAT signaling based on the laws of chemical kinetics have elucidated the importance of these different regulatory mechanisms on JAK-STAT signaling dynamics.
Protein inhibitors of activated STATs (PIAS)
PIAS are a four-member protein family made of: PIAS1, PIAS3, PIASx, and PIASγ. The proteins add a marker, called SUMO (small ubiquitin-like modifier), onto other proteins – such as JAKs and STATs, modifying their function. The addition of a SUMO group onto STAT1 by PIAS1 has been shown to prevent activation of genes by STAT1. Other studies have demonstrated that adding a SUMO group to STATs may block phosphorylation of tyrosines on STATs, preventing their dimerization and inhibiting JAK-STAT signalling. PIASγ has also been shown to prevent STAT1 from functioning. PIAS proteins may also function by preventing STATs from binding to DNA (and therefore preventing gene activation), and by recruiting proteins called histone deacetylases (HDACs), which lower the level of gene expression.
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs)
Since adding phosphate groups on tyrosines is such an important part of how the JAK-STAT signalling pathway functions, removing these phosphate groups can inhibit signalling. PTPs are tyrosine phosphatases, so are able to remove these phosphates and prevent signalling. Three major PTPs are SHP-1, SHP-2 and CD45.
SHP-1. SHP-1 is mainly expressed in blood cells. It contains two SH2 domains and a catalytic domain (the region of a protein that carries out the main function of the protein) - the catalytic domain contains the amino acid sequence VHCSAGIGRTG (a sequence typical of PTPs). As with all PTPs, a number of amino acid structures are essential for their function: conserved cysteine, arginine and glutamine amino acids, and a loop made of tryptophan, proline and aspartate amino acids (WPD loop). When SHP-1 is inactive, the SH2 domains interact with the catalytic domain, and so the phosphatase is unable to function. When SHP-1 is activated however, the SH2 domains move away from the catalytic domain, exposing the catalytic site and therefore allowing phosphatase activity. SHP-1 is then able to bind and remove phosphate groups from the JAKs associated with receptors, preventing the transphosphorylation needed for the signalling pathway to pro
|
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] |
969821
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT%20signaling%20pathway
|
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
|
identified on one of these genes, called even-skipped (eve), to support this theory. Of all the segment stripes affected by JAK or STAT mutations, the fifth stripe is affected the most, the exact molecular reasons behind this are still unknown.
Regulation
Given the importance of the JAK-STAT signalling pathway, particularly in cytokine signalling, there are a variety of mechanisms that cells possess to regulate the amount of signalling that occurs. Three major groups of proteins that cells use to regulate this signalling pathway are protein inhibitors of activated STAT (PIAS), protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) and suppressors of cytokine signalling (SOCS). Computational models of JAK-STAT signaling based on the laws of chemical kinetics have elucidated the importance of these different regulatory mechanisms on JAK-STAT signaling dynamics.
Protein inhibitors of activated STATs (PIAS)
PIAS are a four-member protein family made of: PIAS1, PIAS3, PIASx, and PIASγ. The proteins add a marker, called SUMO (small ubiquitin-like modifier), onto other proteins – such as JAKs and STATs, modifying their function. The addition of a SUMO group onto STAT1 by PIAS1 has been shown to prevent activation of genes by STAT1. Other studies have demonstrated that adding a SUMO group to STATs may block phosphorylation of tyrosines on STATs, preventing their dimerization and inhibiting JAK-STAT signalling. PIASγ has also been shown to prevent STAT1 from functioning. PIAS proteins may also function by preventing STATs from binding to DNA (and therefore preventing gene activation), and by recruiting proteins called histone deacetylases (HDACs), which lower the level of gene expression.
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs)
Since adding phosphate groups on tyrosines is such an important part of how the JAK-STAT signalling pathway functions, removing these phosphate groups can inhibit signalling. PTPs are tyrosine phosphatases, so are able to remove these phosphates and prevent signalling. Three major PTPs are SHP-1, SHP-2 and CD45.
SHP-1. SHP-1 is mainly expressed in blood cells. It contains two SH2 domains and a catalytic domain (the region of a protein that carries out the main function of the protein) - the catalytic domain contains the amino acid sequence VHCSAGIGRTG (a sequence typical of PTPs). As with all PTPs, a number of amino acid structures are essential for their function: conserved cysteine, arginine and glutamine amino acids, and a loop made of tryptophan, proline and aspartate amino acids (WPD loop). When SHP-1 is inactive, the SH2 domains interact with the catalytic domain, and so the phosphatase is unable to function. When SHP-1 is activated however, the SH2 domains move away from the catalytic domain, exposing the catalytic site and therefore allowing phosphatase activity. SHP-1 is then able to bind and remove phosphate groups from the JAKs associated with receptors, preventing the transphosphorylation needed for the signalling pathway to progress.
One example of this is seen in the JAK-STAT signalling pathway mediated by the erythropoietin receptor (EpoR). Here, SHP-1 binds directly to a tyrosine residue (at position 429) on EpoR and removes phosphate groups from the receptor-associated JAK2. The ability of SHP-1 to negatively regulate the JAK-STAT pathway has also been seen in experiments using mice lacking SHP-1. These mice experience characteristics of autoimmune diseases and show high levels of cell proliferation, which are typical characteristics of an abnormally high level of JAK-STAT signalling. Additionally, adding methyl groups to the SHP-1 gene (which reduces the amount of SHP-1 produced) has been linked to lymphoma (a type of blood cancer) .
However, SHP-1 may also promote JAK-STAT signalling. A study in 1997 found that SHP-1 potentially allows higher amounts of STAT activation, as opposed to reducing STAT activity. A detailed molecular understanding for how SHP-1 can both activate and inhibit the signalling pathway is still unknown.
SHP-2. SHP-2 has a very similar structure to SHP-1, but unlike SHP-1, SHP-2 is produced in many different cell types - not just blood cells. Humans have two SHP-2 proteins, each made up of 593 and 597 amino acids. The SH2 domains of SHP-2 appear to play an important role in controlling the activity of SHP-2. One of the SH2 domains binds to the catalytic domain of SHP-2, to prevent SHP-2 functioning. Then, when a protein with a phosphorylated tyrosine binds, the SH2 domain changes orientation and SHP-2 is activated. SHP-2 is then able to remove phosphate groups from JAKs, STATs and the receptors themselves - so, like SHP-1, can prevent the phosphorylation needed for the pathway to continue, and therefore inhibit JAK-STAT signalling. Like SHP-1, SHP-2 is able to remove these phosphate groups through the action of the conserved cysteine, arginine, glutamine and WPD loop.
Negative regulation by SHP-2 has been reported in a number of experiments - one example has been when exploring JAK1/STAT1 signalling, where SHP-2 is able to remove phosphate groups from proteins in the pathway, such as STAT1. In a similar manner, SHP-2 has also been shown to reduce signalling involving STAT3 and STAT5 proteins, by removing phosphate groups.
Like SHP-1, SHP-2 is also believed to promote JAK-STAT signalling in some instances, as well as inhibit signalling. For example, one study indicates that SHP-2 may promote STAT5 activity instead of reducing it. Also, other studies propose that SHP-2 may increase JAK2 activity, and promote JAK2/STAT5 signalling. It is still unknown how SHP2 can both inhibit and promote JAK-STAT signalling in the JAK2/STAT5 pathway; one theory is that SHP-2 may promote activation of JAK2, but inhibit STAT5 by removing phosphate groups from it.
CD45. CD45 is mainly produced in blood cells. In humans it has been shown to be able to act on JAK1 and JAK3, whereas in mice, CD45 is capable of acting on all JAKs. One study indicates t
|
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] |
969821
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT%20signaling%20pathway
|
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
|
gress.
One example of this is seen in the JAK-STAT signalling pathway mediated by the erythropoietin receptor (EpoR). Here, SHP-1 binds directly to a tyrosine residue (at position 429) on EpoR and removes phosphate groups from the receptor-associated JAK2. The ability of SHP-1 to negatively regulate the JAK-STAT pathway has also been seen in experiments using mice lacking SHP-1. These mice experience characteristics of autoimmune diseases and show high levels of cell proliferation, which are typical characteristics of an abnormally high level of JAK-STAT signalling. Additionally, adding methyl groups to the SHP-1 gene (which reduces the amount of SHP-1 produced) has been linked to lymphoma (a type of blood cancer) .
However, SHP-1 may also promote JAK-STAT signalling. A study in 1997 found that SHP-1 potentially allows higher amounts of STAT activation, as opposed to reducing STAT activity. A detailed molecular understanding for how SHP-1 can both activate and inhibit the signalling pathway is still unknown.
SHP-2. SHP-2 has a very similar structure to SHP-1, but unlike SHP-1, SHP-2 is produced in many different cell types - not just blood cells. Humans have two SHP-2 proteins, each made up of 593 and 597 amino acids. The SH2 domains of SHP-2 appear to play an important role in controlling the activity of SHP-2. One of the SH2 domains binds to the catalytic domain of SHP-2, to prevent SHP-2 functioning. Then, when a protein with a phosphorylated tyrosine binds, the SH2 domain changes orientation and SHP-2 is activated. SHP-2 is then able to remove phosphate groups from JAKs, STATs and the receptors themselves - so, like SHP-1, can prevent the phosphorylation needed for the pathway to continue, and therefore inhibit JAK-STAT signalling. Like SHP-1, SHP-2 is able to remove these phosphate groups through the action of the conserved cysteine, arginine, glutamine and WPD loop.
Negative regulation by SHP-2 has been reported in a number of experiments - one example has been when exploring JAK1/STAT1 signalling, where SHP-2 is able to remove phosphate groups from proteins in the pathway, such as STAT1. In a similar manner, SHP-2 has also been shown to reduce signalling involving STAT3 and STAT5 proteins, by removing phosphate groups.
Like SHP-1, SHP-2 is also believed to promote JAK-STAT signalling in some instances, as well as inhibit signalling. For example, one study indicates that SHP-2 may promote STAT5 activity instead of reducing it. Also, other studies propose that SHP-2 may increase JAK2 activity, and promote JAK2/STAT5 signalling. It is still unknown how SHP2 can both inhibit and promote JAK-STAT signalling in the JAK2/STAT5 pathway; one theory is that SHP-2 may promote activation of JAK2, but inhibit STAT5 by removing phosphate groups from it.
CD45. CD45 is mainly produced in blood cells. In humans it has been shown to be able to act on JAK1 and JAK3, whereas in mice, CD45 is capable of acting on all JAKs. One study indicates that CD45 can reduce the amount of time that JAK-STAT signalling is active. The exact details of how CD45 functions is still unknown.
Suppressors of cytokine signalling (SOCS)
There are eight protein members of the SOCS family: cytokine-inducible SH2 domain-containing protein (CISH), SOCS1, SOCS2, SOCS3, SOCS4, SOCS5, SOCS6, and SOCS7, each protein has an SH2 domain and a 40-amino-acid region called the SOCS box. The SOCS box can interact with a number of proteins to form a protein complex, and this complex can then cause the breakdown of JAKs and the receptors themselves, therefore inhibiting JAK-STAT signalling. The protein complex does this by allowing a marker called ubiquitin to be added to proteins, in a process called ubiquitination, which signals for a protein to be broken down. The proteins, such as JAKs and the receptors, are then transported to a compartment in the cell called the proteasome, which carries out protein breakdown.
SOCS can also function by binding to proteins involved in JAK-STAT signalling and blocking their activity. For example, the SH2 domain of SOCS1 binds to a tyrosine in the activation loop of JAKs, which prevents JAKs from phosphorylating each other. The SH2 domains of SOCS2, SOCS3 and CIS bind directly to receptors themselves. Also, SOCS1 and SOCS3 can prevent JAK-STAT signalling by binding to JAKs, using segments called kinase inhibitory regions (KIRs) and stopping JAKs binding to other proteins. The exact details of how other SOCS function is less understood.
Clinical significance
Since the JAK-STAT pathway plays a major role in many fundamental processes, such as apoptosis and inflammation, dysfunctional proteins in the pathway may lead to a number of diseases. For example, alterations in JAK-STAT signalling can result in cancer and diseases affecting the immune system, such as severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (SCID).
Immune system-related diseases
JAK3 can be used for the signalling of IL-2, IL-4, IL-15 and IL-21 (as well as other cytokines); therefore patients with mutations in the JAK3 gene often experience issues affecting many aspects of the immune system. For example, non-functional JAK3 causes SCID, which results in patients having no NK cells, B cells or T cells, and this would make SCID individuals susceptible to infection. Mutations of the STAT5 protein, which can signal with JAK3, has been shown to result in autoimmune disorders.
It has been suggested that patients with mutations in STAT1 and STAT2 are often more likely to develop infections from bacteria and viruses. Also, STAT4 mutations have been associated with rheumatoid arthritis, and STAT6 mutations are linked to asthma.
Patients with a faulty JAK-STAT signalling pathway may also experience skin disorders. For example, non-functional cytokine receptors, and overexpression of STAT3 have both been associated with psoriasis (an autoimmune disease associated with red, flaky skin). STAT3 plays an important role in psoriasis, as
|
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] |
969821
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT%20signaling%20pathway
|
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
|
hat CD45 can reduce the amount of time that JAK-STAT signalling is active. The exact details of how CD45 functions is still unknown.
Suppressors of cytokine signalling (SOCS)
There are eight protein members of the SOCS family: cytokine-inducible SH2 domain-containing protein (CISH), SOCS1, SOCS2, SOCS3, SOCS4, SOCS5, SOCS6, and SOCS7, each protein has an SH2 domain and a 40-amino-acid region called the SOCS box. The SOCS box can interact with a number of proteins to form a protein complex, and this complex can then cause the breakdown of JAKs and the receptors themselves, therefore inhibiting JAK-STAT signalling. The protein complex does this by allowing a marker called ubiquitin to be added to proteins, in a process called ubiquitination, which signals for a protein to be broken down. The proteins, such as JAKs and the receptors, are then transported to a compartment in the cell called the proteasome, which carries out protein breakdown.
SOCS can also function by binding to proteins involved in JAK-STAT signalling and blocking their activity. For example, the SH2 domain of SOCS1 binds to a tyrosine in the activation loop of JAKs, which prevents JAKs from phosphorylating each other. The SH2 domains of SOCS2, SOCS3 and CIS bind directly to receptors themselves. Also, SOCS1 and SOCS3 can prevent JAK-STAT signalling by binding to JAKs, using segments called kinase inhibitory regions (KIRs) and stopping JAKs binding to other proteins. The exact details of how other SOCS function is less understood.
Clinical significance
Since the JAK-STAT pathway plays a major role in many fundamental processes, such as apoptosis and inflammation, dysfunctional proteins in the pathway may lead to a number of diseases. For example, alterations in JAK-STAT signalling can result in cancer and diseases affecting the immune system, such as severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (SCID).
Immune system-related diseases
JAK3 can be used for the signalling of IL-2, IL-4, IL-15 and IL-21 (as well as other cytokines); therefore patients with mutations in the JAK3 gene often experience issues affecting many aspects of the immune system. For example, non-functional JAK3 causes SCID, which results in patients having no NK cells, B cells or T cells, and this would make SCID individuals susceptible to infection. Mutations of the STAT5 protein, which can signal with JAK3, has been shown to result in autoimmune disorders.
It has been suggested that patients with mutations in STAT1 and STAT2 are often more likely to develop infections from bacteria and viruses. Also, STAT4 mutations have been associated with rheumatoid arthritis, and STAT6 mutations are linked to asthma.
Patients with a faulty JAK-STAT signalling pathway may also experience skin disorders. For example, non-functional cytokine receptors, and overexpression of STAT3 have both been associated with psoriasis (an autoimmune disease associated with red, flaky skin). STAT3 plays an important role in psoriasis, as STAT3 can control the production of IL-23 receptors, and IL-23 can help the development of Th17 cells, and Th17 cells can induce psoriasis. Also, since many cytokines function through the STAT3 transcription factor, STAT3 plays a significant role in maintaining skin immunity. In addition, because patients with JAK3 gene mutations have no functional T cells, B cells or NK cells, they would more likely to develop skin infections.
Cancer
Cancer involves abnormal and uncontrollable cell growth in a part of the body. Therefore, since JAK-STAT signalling can allow the transcription of genes involved in cell division, one potential effect of excessive JAK-STAT signalling is cancer formation. High levels of STAT activation have been associated with cancer; in particular, high amounts of STAT3 and STAT5 activation is mostly linked to more dangerous tumours. For example, too much STAT3 activity has been associated with increasing the likelihood of melanoma (skin cancer) returning after treatment and abnormally high levels of STAT5 activity have been linked to a greater probability of patient death from prostate cancer.
Altered JAK-STAT signalling can also be involved in developing breast cancer. JAK-STAT signalling in mammary glands (located within breasts) can promote cell division and reduce cell apoptosis during pregnancy and puberty, and therefore if excessively activated, cancer can form. High STAT3 activity plays a major role in this process, as it can allow the transcription of genes such as BCL2 and c-Myc, which are involved in cell division.
Mutations in JAK2 can lead to leukaemia and lymphoma. Specifically, mutations in exons 12, 13, 14 and 15 of the JAK2 gene are proposed to be a risk factor in developing lymphoma or leukemia. Additionally, mutated STAT3 and STAT5 can increase JAK-STAT signalling in NK and T cells, which promotes very high proliferation of these cells, and increases the likelihood of developing leukaemia. Also, a JAK-STAT signalling pathway mediated by erythropoietin (EPO), which usually allows the development of red blood cells, may be altered in patients with leukemia.
Treatments
Since excessive JAK-STAT signalling is responsible for some cancers and immune disorders, JAK inhibitors have been proposed as drugs for therapy. For instance, to treat some forms of leukaemia, targeting and inhibiting JAKs could eliminate the effects of EPO signalling and perhaps prevent the development of leukaemia. One example of a JAK inhibitor drug is Ruxolitinib, which is used as a JAK2 inhibitor. STAT inhibitors are also being developed, and many of the inhibitors target STAT3. It has been reported that therapies which target STAT3 can improve the survival of patients with cancer. Another drug, called Tofacitinib, has been used for psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis treatment, and has been recently approved for Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis treatment.
See also
Janus kinase inhibitor, a type of Janus kinases-blocking drugs u
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969824
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%20council
|
Student council
|
A student council (also known as a student union or associated student body) is an administrative organization of students in different educational institutes ranging from elementary schools to universities and research organizations around the world. These councils exist in most public and private K-12 school systems in different countries. Many universities, both private and public, have a student council as an apex body of all their students' organisations. Student councils often serve to engage students in learning about democracy and leadership, as originally espoused by John Dewey in Democracy and Education (1917).
Function
The student council helps share ideas, interests, and concerns with teachers and institute administrative authorities. It also help raise funds for school-wide activities, including social events, community projects, helping people in need and school reform. Most schools participate in food drives, fundraisers and parties. Many members learn skills that were an extension of their formal education.
Student councils operate in many forms. There are representative-based and modeled loosely after the U.S. Congress, or based on the Executive Branch of the United States, with a President, Vice-President, secretary, treasurer, and reporter. In this form student representatives and officers are usually elected from and by the student body, although there may be prerequisites for candidacy or suffrage. In elementary schools, there are typically one or two student representatives per classroom and one presiding set of officers. However, many secondary schools have one set of officers per grade level.
An example of the structure of an elementary student council may include a president, a vice president, secretary, treasurer, sergeant of arms, fundraising officer, historian, boys rep, girls rep, and just members. These roles may be assigned or voted on, either within the student council or by the entire student body. They may also reflect descending grade-levels, with the president in the oldest grade, and so forth. Secondary school governments often have more independence and power than younger governments. Often a student government is overseen by a sponsor, which is usually a teacher at that particular school. Most junior or middle school student councils have a constitution of some sort and usually do not have a judicial branch. Compared to elementary school councils, junior high and high school councils generally have fewer people.
In some schools, a student council representative is assigned to each class. That person passes on requests, ideas and complaints from students in that class to the student council. In other schools, the elected Class Officers are automatically members of the student council.
Student councils usually do not have funding authority and generally must generate their operating funds through fundraisers such as car washes and bake sales. Some student councils have a budget from the school, along with responsibility for funding a variety of student activities within a school.
Regional and national structures
Student councils can join larger associations, and in the United States, the National Association of Student Councils. In Canada, the Canadian Student Leadership Association coordinates the national scene, and in the United Kingdom an organization called involver provides training, support and coordination for the nation's student councils
Argentina
Bulgaria
In Bulgaria most of the universities have a student council, regulated by law and the regulations of each university.
Canada
In Canada, the student council is used for helping the school with special events and planning other events. As well student councils in Canada also act as a body to advocate for student issues like tuitions.
Chile
Finland
Secondary high schools, lukio, and vocational schools in Finland have student councils. They incorporate all the students of the institution, but their status is marginal, locally and nationally. Legislation demands that they should be heard in all matters pertaining to the education in the institution, but this is often not done.
Germany
Student representation is very important in the German school system. Each state in the Federal Republic of Germany has its own peculiarities in the system, but they are by and large similar. Although education in Germany is a matter for the federal states, there is a Federal student Conference where all state student councils can elect delegates to participate and exchange views on nationwide problems that arise in education. Every school in Germany has a student council. According to the student Council, every district has a District student council. At the municipal level, these councils deal with the school authorities and with the individual institutions, such as school offices, etc. Above this there is a state student representation in each state, where delegates from each district of the respective state come to exchange ideas. This body is granted extensive rights such as a budget of between €40,000 and €70,000 for material costs, but is also obliged to consult with the Ministry of Education when important decisions are made.
Greece
In Greece, student representation is considered the limestone of democracy. All public secondary schools have a student council which consists of 15 members: a president, a vice-president, a secretary and 12 equal voting members. Additionally, all classes have a separate student council which consists of 5 members: a president, a secretary, a treasurer and 2 equal voting members.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, some secondary schools have student councils, while some have Students' Unions. Student councils are directly elected by the student population, and are formed by the winning cabinet. A hierarchical structure is maintained, with positions like Secretaries/Coordinators for internal and external affairs, Treasurer, Vice-Chairpersons and Chairperson. Stude
|
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] |
969824
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%20council
|
Student council
|
h responsibility for funding a variety of student activities within a school.
Regional and national structures
Student councils can join larger associations, and in the United States, the National Association of Student Councils. In Canada, the Canadian Student Leadership Association coordinates the national scene, and in the United Kingdom an organization called involver provides training, support and coordination for the nation's student councils
Argentina
Bulgaria
In Bulgaria most of the universities have a student council, regulated by law and the regulations of each university.
Canada
In Canada, the student council is used for helping the school with special events and planning other events. As well student councils in Canada also act as a body to advocate for student issues like tuitions.
Chile
Finland
Secondary high schools, lukio, and vocational schools in Finland have student councils. They incorporate all the students of the institution, but their status is marginal, locally and nationally. Legislation demands that they should be heard in all matters pertaining to the education in the institution, but this is often not done.
Germany
Student representation is very important in the German school system. Each state in the Federal Republic of Germany has its own peculiarities in the system, but they are by and large similar. Although education in Germany is a matter for the federal states, there is a Federal student Conference where all state student councils can elect delegates to participate and exchange views on nationwide problems that arise in education. Every school in Germany has a student council. According to the student Council, every district has a District student council. At the municipal level, these councils deal with the school authorities and with the individual institutions, such as school offices, etc. Above this there is a state student representation in each state, where delegates from each district of the respective state come to exchange ideas. This body is granted extensive rights such as a budget of between €40,000 and €70,000 for material costs, but is also obliged to consult with the Ministry of Education when important decisions are made.
Greece
In Greece, student representation is considered the limestone of democracy. All public secondary schools have a student council which consists of 15 members: a president, a vice-president, a secretary and 12 equal voting members. Additionally, all classes have a separate student council which consists of 5 members: a president, a secretary, a treasurer and 2 equal voting members.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, some secondary schools have student councils, while some have Students' Unions. Student councils are directly elected by the student population, and are formed by the winning cabinet. A hierarchical structure is maintained, with positions like Secretaries/Coordinators for internal and external affairs, Treasurer, Vice-Chairpersons and Chairperson. Student councils represent the student body, organise events and provide welfare for students.
India
In India, student councils are rare in elementary and middle schools. They are established in many secondary and higher secondary schools and are most commonly instituted in universities.
Student councils in India may be elected, nominated or selected after interview (or written examination or both). In universities, they are elected by ballot.
Indonesia
The student councils in Indonesia are officially formed by the government and is called OSIS (Organisasi Siswa Intra Sekolah). OSIS is present in both junior high school and high school. Every year, the committee which usually consists of teachers and former student council members hold a selection process to admit students who meet qualifications to join OSIS, while the president is voted by students of the school. In some practices, the teachers can also vote depending on their own regulation.
Iran
In Iran, each November since 1997, secondary school students at each school in the nation elect between 5-14 Student Council members, which act as the main medium of communication and debate between the student body and school officials. The size of the Council at each school depends largely on the class size and school policies. Student councils in Iran mainly promote interpersonal and leadership skills, constructive debates between school officials and the students, and organization of school activities and field trips.
Ireland
Since 1998 in Ireland there has been sustained development of student councils in post primary schools. In 2008 the Irish Second Level Students Union was founded as the National Umbrella body to organise and coordinate the national campaign efforts of the student councils. The Union is also a member of OBESSU. Schools and staff are advised to assist the creation of a student council under section 27 of The Education Act 1998
Israel
Israel's national student and youth council (Hebrew: מועצת התלמידים והנוער הארצית) is an elected body representing all youth in Israel since 1993. Representatives are elected democratically from district youth councils. (Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Center, Haifa, Arab sector, South, North and the regional schools).
The council comprises youth from the different sectors: religious, secular, Jewish, Arab, Druze and a Bedouin representative.
The National Youth Council representatives mediate between Government decision makers and the Youth representatives. They participate in the various "Knesset" (the Israeli parliament) committees: Education, internal Affairs, Violence, Drugs and Science. Youth representatives participate in committees dealing with youth-related issues such as: children's rights, violence, delinquency and youngsters at risk - cut off from mainstream youth. Youth representatives also participate in discussions concerning matriculation examinations, discussing a national project on school trips, delegations Youth representatives youth
|
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] |
969824
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%20council
|
Student council
|
nt councils represent the student body, organise events and provide welfare for students.
India
In India, student councils are rare in elementary and middle schools. They are established in many secondary and higher secondary schools and are most commonly instituted in universities.
Student councils in India may be elected, nominated or selected after interview (or written examination or both). In universities, they are elected by ballot.
Indonesia
The student councils in Indonesia are officially formed by the government and is called OSIS (Organisasi Siswa Intra Sekolah). OSIS is present in both junior high school and high school. Every year, the committee which usually consists of teachers and former student council members hold a selection process to admit students who meet qualifications to join OSIS, while the president is voted by students of the school. In some practices, the teachers can also vote depending on their own regulation.
Iran
In Iran, each November since 1997, secondary school students at each school in the nation elect between 5-14 Student Council members, which act as the main medium of communication and debate between the student body and school officials. The size of the Council at each school depends largely on the class size and school policies. Student councils in Iran mainly promote interpersonal and leadership skills, constructive debates between school officials and the students, and organization of school activities and field trips.
Ireland
Since 1998 in Ireland there has been sustained development of student councils in post primary schools. In 2008 the Irish Second Level Students Union was founded as the National Umbrella body to organise and coordinate the national campaign efforts of the student councils. The Union is also a member of OBESSU. Schools and staff are advised to assist the creation of a student council under section 27 of The Education Act 1998
Israel
Israel's national student and youth council (Hebrew: מועצת התלמידים והנוער הארצית) is an elected body representing all youth in Israel since 1993. Representatives are elected democratically from district youth councils. (Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Center, Haifa, Arab sector, South, North and the regional schools).
The council comprises youth from the different sectors: religious, secular, Jewish, Arab, Druze and a Bedouin representative.
The National Youth Council representatives mediate between Government decision makers and the Youth representatives. They participate in the various "Knesset" (the Israeli parliament) committees: Education, internal Affairs, Violence, Drugs and Science. Youth representatives participate in committees dealing with youth-related issues such as: children's rights, violence, delinquency and youngsters at risk - cut off from mainstream youth. Youth representatives also participate in discussions concerning matriculation examinations, discussing a national project on school trips, delegations Youth representatives youth, are invited by high officials, ministers and even the president and officials from foreign countries.
Israel's national student and youth council is the first youth council in the world that made student rights legislation.
In 2006 graduates of the Israel's national student and youth council founded an association named Bematana. The association's mission is to promote young leaders who are elected as representatives in student and youth councils in Israel.
in 2012 the Israel's national student and youth council held the International Youth Leadership Conference under the slogan. "Take The Lead!"
Japan
Based on alumni associations which were existed as high-level organizations of extracurricular activities, student councils were added to Japanese schools after World War II. In Japanese schools, students in a class stay together as a cohesive set in the same homeroom for most of the day. Each class has one or more elected representatives who reports to student council. The student council consists of members who are elected by the student body. The council is often responsible for organizing events such as the culture festival, sports day, and class field trips. The council also oversees the school clubs, and has absolute influence on school and club policies.
Malaysia
In Malaysia public secondary schools student councils are usually run and managed by the school's prefects, also known as the Prefectorial Board. They act as the representatives between the students and the teachers. Some schools also have the prefects managed by a few groups of select teachers known as disciplinary teachers, or directly under the head teacher of discipline. Depending on each school's individual system, the Prefectorial Board either have open recruitment for any students interested but requiring them to undergo a year's worth of training and probation, direct recruitment via recommendations made by either teachers or senior prefects (usually students who show excel in their studies and activities) or both. Some schools have the best students from each class selected to be prefects. Positions such as head prefect (the equivalent of student president), assistant head prefect, secretary and treasurers are usually elected by students. Some schools have an internal election among prefects or have the teacher select a few possible candidates for such roles before letting the students vote. These positions form the high council or high committee. Secretary and treasurers sometimes come with assistants, either appointed by the position holder, the committee or they are voted just like the other members. Some schools will have additional positions such as 'Head of Discipline' or 'Head of Statistics' who themselves have a committee of their own to manage different aspects of the school.
Those not part of the high committee are then given roles and positions based on their merit and skills to form different committees to oversee different aspects of the school such a
|
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] |
969824
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%20council
|
Student council
|
, are invited by high officials, ministers and even the president and officials from foreign countries.
Israel's national student and youth council is the first youth council in the world that made student rights legislation.
In 2006 graduates of the Israel's national student and youth council founded an association named Bematana. The association's mission is to promote young leaders who are elected as representatives in student and youth councils in Israel.
in 2012 the Israel's national student and youth council held the International Youth Leadership Conference under the slogan. "Take The Lead!"
Japan
Based on alumni associations which were existed as high-level organizations of extracurricular activities, student councils were added to Japanese schools after World War II. In Japanese schools, students in a class stay together as a cohesive set in the same homeroom for most of the day. Each class has one or more elected representatives who reports to student council. The student council consists of members who are elected by the student body. The council is often responsible for organizing events such as the culture festival, sports day, and class field trips. The council also oversees the school clubs, and has absolute influence on school and club policies.
Malaysia
In Malaysia public secondary schools student councils are usually run and managed by the school's prefects, also known as the Prefectorial Board. They act as the representatives between the students and the teachers. Some schools also have the prefects managed by a few groups of select teachers known as disciplinary teachers, or directly under the head teacher of discipline. Depending on each school's individual system, the Prefectorial Board either have open recruitment for any students interested but requiring them to undergo a year's worth of training and probation, direct recruitment via recommendations made by either teachers or senior prefects (usually students who show excel in their studies and activities) or both. Some schools have the best students from each class selected to be prefects. Positions such as head prefect (the equivalent of student president), assistant head prefect, secretary and treasurers are usually elected by students. Some schools have an internal election among prefects or have the teacher select a few possible candidates for such roles before letting the students vote. These positions form the high council or high committee. Secretary and treasurers sometimes come with assistants, either appointed by the position holder, the committee or they are voted just like the other members. Some schools will have additional positions such as 'Head of Discipline' or 'Head of Statistics' who themselves have a committee of their own to manage different aspects of the school.
Those not part of the high committee are then given roles and positions based on their merit and skills to form different committees to oversee different aspects of the school such as club activities, moral enforcement, school events or even paperwork management. While a prefect's main job is to enforce discipline and be the eyes of the school, those with roles and positions have to carry out their specific duties while managing their responsibilities as prefects. These committees are headed by the high committee members who also have to manage the students and the school. Sometimes, class monitors (who also act as class reps) take part in discussions and meetings held by prefects to better engage with the students. They may also be included as part of the committees but as normal students. Each classroom also has their own committee consisting of roles such as class monitor, assistant monitor, treasurer and secretary to manage things in their own classes.
While prefects enforce the school rules and assist the teachers, they also act as the voice of students when it comes to issues concerning the well-being of students. They essentially have full influence and control over school policies. However, as school laws are created by the Malaysian Ministry of Education, the prefects have no power in amending laws.
Prefects in Malaysian schools can be identified by their distinctive blue uniform that make them stand out from normal students. Primary schools also have a prefectorial board by on a much smaller scale.
Norway
All schools in Norway are required by law to have a student council elected by the students. The aim of student council is usually to improve their school through encouraging social, cultural and other extracurricular events in the local community. The student councils in Norway are governed by a Board of Directors which is either elected directly or by the student council.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, Student Councils are being introduced in many Private and Public Schools. Student council are playing an important role in Pakistani schools.
A Student council in Pakistan may be elected, nominated or selected after interview or written examination or both, but can also be based on academic behaviour or discipline.
Sometimes council members are elected based on general elections and if the teacher voted on a good student based on records and grades.
Philippines
Student governments of different schools throughout the Philippine Republic are often directly elected by student body members of the class or organization which they supposedly govern. In some schools, they call the student councils as the "supreme student government" or "SSG" for short.
Singapore
In Singapore many secondary schools have a student council, which provides a medium for communication between the students and the school administration, a form of student welfare, and an important event-organising body. Some secondary schools name their student council like "Student Leader Board" or "Student Leader Committee", etc. They are usually nominated by peers and subsequently elected based on the decision of the teachers overseeing the student leader b
|
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] |
969910
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew%20Caldwell
|
Drew Caldwell
|
Drew Caldwell (born April 10, 1960) is a politician in Manitoba, Canada. He has been a member of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba since 1999, is a cabinet minister in the government of Greg Selinger, and served in the cabinet of Gary Doer. Caldwell is a member of the New Democratic Party.
Early life and career
Caldwell was born in Brandon, Manitoba. He holds a Bachelor of Arts degree from Brandon University (1982) and a Bachelor of Education degree from Queen's University in Kingston (1983), and has taken graduate studies in History at McGill University. He returned to Brandon as an adult, worked as a substitute teacher, and was active with community organizations such as the Brandon Folk Music and Art Festival, the Brandon Poverty Forum and the Art Gallery of Southwestern Manitoba.
Caldwell was a member of the Brandon City Council from 1992 to 1999, representing the Rosser Ward (Ward Two). He was a founding director of the Brandon Regional Health Authority, and an Executive Member of the Union of Manitoba Municipalities, the Manitoba Association of Urban Municipalities and the Association of Manitoba Municipalities between 1997 and 1999. He opposed tax increases while on council, and supported owners of single-family homes in calling for parts of the city to be re-zoned from high-density residential to low-density residential. In 1998, he led a movement to establish a $50,000 reserve fund for social development.
Member of the Legislative Assembly
When longtime Brandon East MLA Len Evans announced his retirement in 1999, Caldwell defeated Ross Martin and Susan Ferron to win the riding's NDP nomination. He was returned without difficulty in the general election that followed, as the NDP won a provincial majority government under Gary Doer.
Minister of Education and Training
Caldwell was widely respected for his administrative skills, and there was little surprise when he was appointed to cabinet as Minister of Education and Training on October 5, 1999. The position gave him oversight of the province's public schools and post-secondary institutions. His position was renamed as Minister of Education, Training and Youth in 2001, and his responsibilities for post-secondary institutions were transferred to Diane McGifford, the Minister of Advanced Education and Training.
Early initiatives
Soon after his appointment, Caldwell implemented an NDP campaign pledge to replace standardized Grade Three language and mathematics exams with individual diagnostic tests administered by teachers. Many teachers complained about the extra workload, and opposition critic Joy Smith argued that the test system should be restored. Caldwell responded that individual assessments were better suited to students' needs.
Caldwell also removed the controversial Youth News Network from Manitoba schools. The network's parent company, Athena Education Partners, had previously offered free technology to schools in return for requiring students to watch daily YNN broadcasts, which included commercials from private corporations. According to Todd Scarth of the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, YNN televisions were equipped with two-way monitoring systems to ensure that students were watching and that the volume was not adjusted. Athena's contracts also required schools to hire a half-day technician to maintain YNN equipment. Caldwell described YNN's programming as "clearly an unsatisfactory curriculum choice" for children, and oversaw the program's elimination once previously-signed contracts were concluded in August 2000. The network was also banned in other provinces, and went off the air in 2000.
School funding
When he assumed office, Caldwell indicated that school board funding increases would be pegged relative to provincial economic growth. In February 2000, he announced that his government would provide schools with a 2.8% funding increase over the previous academic year. The Winnipeg One division saw its funding increase by $4.1 million, primarily due to a large number of special needs students. Caldwell announced another 2.8% in 2001, and a 2.2% increase in 2002. The latter amount was smaller than in previous years, but higher than overall provincial growth.
Despite these increases, school trustees repeatedly warned the public that boards would be required to either raise taxes or cut back on services. Caldwell acknowledged that the funding increases did not address all divisional needs, and blamed low levels of funding during the previous decade of Progressive Conservative government. He also suggested that some trustees were overpaid, noting that St. Vital trustees had voted to give themselves stipends of $300 per day to attend amalgamation meetings.
Amalgamations
Shortly after assuming office, Caldwell told his department to review the Norrie Commission findings on school boards and prepare a report on amalgamations. He indicated that his intent was to save money on administration, and put more funds directly into the classrooms. Caldwell called for voluntary board mergers in 2000, saying that school divisions would need at least two thousand students to be viable and that more than half the provincial divisions were below that level.
The response from school boards was tepid, and Caldwell announced in late 2001 that he would reduce the number of provincial boards from 54 to 36. Three boards in Winnipeg were forced to merge. A bill enacting these changes was passed in July 2002, and the new school division boundaries were in place for the 2002 municipal elections. The most difficult change was in Transcona-Springfield, which was split and merged with two pre-existing districts.
During the amalgamation dispute, Caldwell introduced legislation requiring merged districts to submit their budgets to the minister for approval. He argued that this was necessary to prevent large property tax increases. He also agreed to pay $50 per student to divisions that he forced i
|
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] |
969910
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew%20Caldwell
|
Drew Caldwell
|
NN broadcasts, which included commercials from private corporations. According to Todd Scarth of the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, YNN televisions were equipped with two-way monitoring systems to ensure that students were watching and that the volume was not adjusted. Athena's contracts also required schools to hire a half-day technician to maintain YNN equipment. Caldwell described YNN's programming as "clearly an unsatisfactory curriculum choice" for children, and oversaw the program's elimination once previously-signed contracts were concluded in August 2000. The network was also banned in other provinces, and went off the air in 2000.
School funding
When he assumed office, Caldwell indicated that school board funding increases would be pegged relative to provincial economic growth. In February 2000, he announced that his government would provide schools with a 2.8% funding increase over the previous academic year. The Winnipeg One division saw its funding increase by $4.1 million, primarily due to a large number of special needs students. Caldwell announced another 2.8% in 2001, and a 2.2% increase in 2002. The latter amount was smaller than in previous years, but higher than overall provincial growth.
Despite these increases, school trustees repeatedly warned the public that boards would be required to either raise taxes or cut back on services. Caldwell acknowledged that the funding increases did not address all divisional needs, and blamed low levels of funding during the previous decade of Progressive Conservative government. He also suggested that some trustees were overpaid, noting that St. Vital trustees had voted to give themselves stipends of $300 per day to attend amalgamation meetings.
Amalgamations
Shortly after assuming office, Caldwell told his department to review the Norrie Commission findings on school boards and prepare a report on amalgamations. He indicated that his intent was to save money on administration, and put more funds directly into the classrooms. Caldwell called for voluntary board mergers in 2000, saying that school divisions would need at least two thousand students to be viable and that more than half the provincial divisions were below that level.
The response from school boards was tepid, and Caldwell announced in late 2001 that he would reduce the number of provincial boards from 54 to 36. Three boards in Winnipeg were forced to merge. A bill enacting these changes was passed in July 2002, and the new school division boundaries were in place for the 2002 municipal elections. The most difficult change was in Transcona-Springfield, which was split and merged with two pre-existing districts.
During the amalgamation dispute, Caldwell introduced legislation requiring merged districts to submit their budgets to the minister for approval. He argued that this was necessary to prevent large property tax increases. He also agreed to pay $50 per student to divisions that he forced into amalgamation, to compensate for the difficulties of restructuring.
Adult education
Caldwell was forced to cut per-student funding for adult education in 2000, after an unexpected surge in enrollment from the previous year put his department $10 million over budget. He later argued that some adult education programs had been inadequately managed during the previous administration, and expressed concern about the quality of education that adult students were receiving. His ministry discovered questionable recruitment practices in the Morris-Macdonald School Division, where cash bonuses had been paid to administrators who brought in thousands of adult students from elsewhere in the province. Caldwell ordered his department to investigate the matter, which he described as "clearly inappropriate".
An October 2001 report from provincial auditor Jon Singleton found that the Morris-Macdonald board had offered courses of dubious quality, and had overbilled the province by as much as four million dollars by claiming students who were not actually enrolled. Caldwell dissolved the board the following month, and authorized the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to launch a criminal investigation. The RCMP later found that there was insufficient evidence to warrant criminal charges. Caldwell said of the matter, "The absolute abrogation of responsibility that took place among these officials is appalling. There may well have to be some systemic change with respect to school board financial responsibility." He introduced new legislation in May 2002.
A government-appointed overseer increased Morris-Macdonald school taxes by 28% in 2002, largely to recover funds that were lost by virtue of the previous controversy. Local residents responded by launching a legal challenge against the overseer and the government. Caldwell indicated that he was willing to cushion the tax burden by allowing new trustees a longer period of time to pay off the debt.
Jon Singleton later discovered that a second school board, the Agassiz Division, had received funding for non-existent adult students in 2001 with the Department of Education's knowledge and approval. The Department had provided an additional $450,000 to the cash-strapped board as general revenue, and flowed it through the adult education program for administrative purposes. Caldwell acknowledged that his department had made a "foolish mistake" in allowing the transfer, but insisted that it was done to protect students from the consequences of a drastic budget cut. He added that the Agassiz and Morris-Macdonald situations were completely different, and rejected calls from the opposition for his resignation. The Deputy Attorney General investigated the matter and concluded that the transaction was inappropriate, but not fraudulent.
Labour relations
Following his appointment to cabinet, Caldwell indicated that he would reverse the previous government's changes to the Public Schools Act relating to arbitrati
|
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] |
969910
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew%20Caldwell
|
Drew Caldwell
|
nto amalgamation, to compensate for the difficulties of restructuring.
Adult education
Caldwell was forced to cut per-student funding for adult education in 2000, after an unexpected surge in enrollment from the previous year put his department $10 million over budget. He later argued that some adult education programs had been inadequately managed during the previous administration, and expressed concern about the quality of education that adult students were receiving. His ministry discovered questionable recruitment practices in the Morris-Macdonald School Division, where cash bonuses had been paid to administrators who brought in thousands of adult students from elsewhere in the province. Caldwell ordered his department to investigate the matter, which he described as "clearly inappropriate".
An October 2001 report from provincial auditor Jon Singleton found that the Morris-Macdonald board had offered courses of dubious quality, and had overbilled the province by as much as four million dollars by claiming students who were not actually enrolled. Caldwell dissolved the board the following month, and authorized the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to launch a criminal investigation. The RCMP later found that there was insufficient evidence to warrant criminal charges. Caldwell said of the matter, "The absolute abrogation of responsibility that took place among these officials is appalling. There may well have to be some systemic change with respect to school board financial responsibility." He introduced new legislation in May 2002.
A government-appointed overseer increased Morris-Macdonald school taxes by 28% in 2002, largely to recover funds that were lost by virtue of the previous controversy. Local residents responded by launching a legal challenge against the overseer and the government. Caldwell indicated that he was willing to cushion the tax burden by allowing new trustees a longer period of time to pay off the debt.
Jon Singleton later discovered that a second school board, the Agassiz Division, had received funding for non-existent adult students in 2001 with the Department of Education's knowledge and approval. The Department had provided an additional $450,000 to the cash-strapped board as general revenue, and flowed it through the adult education program for administrative purposes. Caldwell acknowledged that his department had made a "foolish mistake" in allowing the transfer, but insisted that it was done to protect students from the consequences of a drastic budget cut. He added that the Agassiz and Morris-Macdonald situations were completely different, and rejected calls from the opposition for his resignation. The Deputy Attorney General investigated the matter and concluded that the transaction was inappropriate, but not fraudulent.
Labour relations
Following his appointment to cabinet, Caldwell indicated that he would reverse the previous government's changes to the Public Schools Act relating to arbitration for teachers' salaries. The system in place when he assumed office stipulated that contract disputes must be settled according to the division's ability to pay. Caldwell initially considered reforming the system by putting teachers' contracts under the Labour Relations Act, so as to allow a greater range of issues to be considered. He refused to introduce the option of strikes and lockouts, which neither side had requested. The Manitoba Teachers' Society generally supported the proposed changes, while the Manitoba Association of School Trustees opposed them.
Caldwell's June 2000 legislation expanded the range of arbitrable issues, but did not put teacher contracts under the Labour Relations Act. The reforms did not initially allow teachers to take class size and class composition to arbitration, although the government later exercised a clause in the bill to permit this right.
Property taxes
When campaigning for election in 1999, Gary Doer pledged that his party would move to phase out the Education Support Levy on property taxes by its third year in office, unless such a move would jeopardize health or education services. An April 2001 report by the Association of Manitoba Municipalities subsequently proposed a significant education tax shift from property taxes to general revenue. Caldwell announced later in the year that his government would begin phasing out the levy for homeowners, and would attempt to remove it entirely in five years.
Caldwell also introduced a revised funding formula for Manitoba schools in early 2002, simplifying some aspects of a model that was often criticized for its byzantine complexity. Some argued that the changes did not go far enough.
School curriculum
In 2001, Caldwell introduced a program to allow greater freedom for high-school students and teachers in designing their curriculum. Under his proposals, students would be allowed to earn optional credits through non-traditional means, such as taking part in science projects or performing community service. Some argued that these changes would devalue the quality of Manitoba education, but Caldwell insisted that the new credit courses would be thoroughly vetted and would incorporate traditional subjects. The proposal was revised in 2002; credits for volunteer work were allowed, but extracurricular activity credits were dropped after opposition from educators.
Universities
Caldwell fulfilled an NDP pledge for a tuition freeze and a 10% student tuition rebate shortly after assuming office. Both policies won support from the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
The Doer government's first budget, in May 2000, included $60 million of new money for Manitoba's community college system, and a 3.8% increase for university funding. Although senior educators acknowledged that Caldwell's spending increases were a step in the right direction, many described the funds as insufficient. The University of Manitoba announced that it would need to introd
|
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] |
969910
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew%20Caldwell
|
Drew Caldwell
|
on for teachers' salaries. The system in place when he assumed office stipulated that contract disputes must be settled according to the division's ability to pay. Caldwell initially considered reforming the system by putting teachers' contracts under the Labour Relations Act, so as to allow a greater range of issues to be considered. He refused to introduce the option of strikes and lockouts, which neither side had requested. The Manitoba Teachers' Society generally supported the proposed changes, while the Manitoba Association of School Trustees opposed them.
Caldwell's June 2000 legislation expanded the range of arbitrable issues, but did not put teacher contracts under the Labour Relations Act. The reforms did not initially allow teachers to take class size and class composition to arbitration, although the government later exercised a clause in the bill to permit this right.
Property taxes
When campaigning for election in 1999, Gary Doer pledged that his party would move to phase out the Education Support Levy on property taxes by its third year in office, unless such a move would jeopardize health or education services. An April 2001 report by the Association of Manitoba Municipalities subsequently proposed a significant education tax shift from property taxes to general revenue. Caldwell announced later in the year that his government would begin phasing out the levy for homeowners, and would attempt to remove it entirely in five years.
Caldwell also introduced a revised funding formula for Manitoba schools in early 2002, simplifying some aspects of a model that was often criticized for its byzantine complexity. Some argued that the changes did not go far enough.
School curriculum
In 2001, Caldwell introduced a program to allow greater freedom for high-school students and teachers in designing their curriculum. Under his proposals, students would be allowed to earn optional credits through non-traditional means, such as taking part in science projects or performing community service. Some argued that these changes would devalue the quality of Manitoba education, but Caldwell insisted that the new credit courses would be thoroughly vetted and would incorporate traditional subjects. The proposal was revised in 2002; credits for volunteer work were allowed, but extracurricular activity credits were dropped after opposition from educators.
Universities
Caldwell fulfilled an NDP pledge for a tuition freeze and a 10% student tuition rebate shortly after assuming office. Both policies won support from the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
The Doer government's first budget, in May 2000, included $60 million of new money for Manitoba's community college system, and a 3.8% increase for university funding. Although senior educators acknowledged that Caldwell's spending increases were a step in the right direction, many described the funds as insufficient. The University of Manitoba announced that it would need to introduce significant cuts in the wake of the budget, although Caldwell argued that university management practices were responsible for the institution's shortfalls. Brandon University officials described the budget as their "most optimistic" in years.
In November 2000, the Doer government introduced $50 million over five years to repair the University of Manitoba's crumbling infrastructure.
Caldwell ceded cabinet responsibility for universities to Diane McGifford in 2001. The Winnipeg Free Press newspaper suggested that he had been "carrying too much responsibility" and "accomplishing too little" in his original ministerial duties, and noted that he was more familiar with the public education file.
Other
In 2001, Caldwell announced that Manitoba would open high schools in Beijing, Shanghai and Bangkok in an effort to attract overseas students to Manitoba's post-secondary education system.
In the same year, members of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals announced that they would distribute trading cards to children outside Manitoba schools as part of a national anti-milk campaign. The cards showed the unhealthy side effects which PETA members suggested were associated with milk, including an increased risk of cancer and heart disease. Caldwell refused to allow PETA members on school property, and announced that he would take "appropriate legal steps" if they "entice[d] children into approaching [them] for materials".
Caldwell indicated in late April 2002 that his government would focus infrastructural funds on repairing existing schools, rather than constructing new ones.
Other responsibilities
Caldwell was appointed to a super-committee of cabinet, called the Community Economic Development Committee, in late March 2000. In August of the same year, he was appointed to the Manitoba Round Table for Sustainable Development by Conservation Minister Oscar Lathlin.
Diane McGifford took Caldwell's seat on the Community Economic Development Committee in March 2001, as the position required the presence of a minister overseeing universities and community colleges.
Minister of Family Services and Housing
Following a cabinet shuffle on September 25, 2002, Caldwell was named Minister of Family Services and Housing with responsibility for Persons with Disabilities. The Family Services Ministry was being restructured at the time of Caldwell's appointment, and he was given responsibility for overseeing the transformation.
Family Services
In November 2002, Caldwell announced that his government would establish a residential treatment centre to provide care and counselling to sexually-exploited children. He also announced a review of Winnipeg Child and Family Services's temporary shelters after a series of complaints, and worked to ensure that play therapy services for children would be retained.
In February 2003, Caldwell received a report into the circumstances of a child who had been shaken to death seven years earlier while under the su
|
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] |
969910
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew%20Caldwell
|
Drew Caldwell
|
uce significant cuts in the wake of the budget, although Caldwell argued that university management practices were responsible for the institution's shortfalls. Brandon University officials described the budget as their "most optimistic" in years.
In November 2000, the Doer government introduced $50 million over five years to repair the University of Manitoba's crumbling infrastructure.
Caldwell ceded cabinet responsibility for universities to Diane McGifford in 2001. The Winnipeg Free Press newspaper suggested that he had been "carrying too much responsibility" and "accomplishing too little" in his original ministerial duties, and noted that he was more familiar with the public education file.
Other
In 2001, Caldwell announced that Manitoba would open high schools in Beijing, Shanghai and Bangkok in an effort to attract overseas students to Manitoba's post-secondary education system.
In the same year, members of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals announced that they would distribute trading cards to children outside Manitoba schools as part of a national anti-milk campaign. The cards showed the unhealthy side effects which PETA members suggested were associated with milk, including an increased risk of cancer and heart disease. Caldwell refused to allow PETA members on school property, and announced that he would take "appropriate legal steps" if they "entice[d] children into approaching [them] for materials".
Caldwell indicated in late April 2002 that his government would focus infrastructural funds on repairing existing schools, rather than constructing new ones.
Other responsibilities
Caldwell was appointed to a super-committee of cabinet, called the Community Economic Development Committee, in late March 2000. In August of the same year, he was appointed to the Manitoba Round Table for Sustainable Development by Conservation Minister Oscar Lathlin.
Diane McGifford took Caldwell's seat on the Community Economic Development Committee in March 2001, as the position required the presence of a minister overseeing universities and community colleges.
Minister of Family Services and Housing
Following a cabinet shuffle on September 25, 2002, Caldwell was named Minister of Family Services and Housing with responsibility for Persons with Disabilities. The Family Services Ministry was being restructured at the time of Caldwell's appointment, and he was given responsibility for overseeing the transformation.
Family Services
In November 2002, Caldwell announced that his government would establish a residential treatment centre to provide care and counselling to sexually-exploited children. He also announced a review of Winnipeg Child and Family Services's temporary shelters after a series of complaints, and worked to ensure that play therapy services for children would be retained.
In February 2003, Caldwell received a report into the circumstances of a child who had been shaken to death seven years earlier while under the supervision of Winnipeg Child and Family Services. He responded by announcing an overhaul of the child welfare system, and indicated that Manitoba would set workload standards for social workers and supervisors.
Caldwell also announced his support for a national day-care program negotiated between the provinces and federal government in early 2003, and pledged that his government would create 788 new day-care spaces across the province in the following year.
In September 2004, Caldwell and Manitoba Métis Federation leader David Chartrand signed a mandate to create the Métis Child, Family and Community Services Agency, and to give the agency control over child welfare services for Métis residents. This step followed a recommendation by the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry ten years earlier, that First Nations in Canada be given authority for raising their children in the child welfare system.
Housing
Caldwell announced a $3.3 million housing announcement for Winnipeg in October 2002, in conjunction with Mayor Glen Murray and Member of Parliament Anita Neville. Soon after, he helped introduce a solar panel heating project to reduce downtown Winnipeg's fuel consumption.
Caldwell acknowledged that the housing situation in Manitoba was difficult, and expressed hope that his government would be able to create up to 2,500 units of affordable housing in five years. In April 2003, he recommended tax credits for the construction of rental housing. He later helped launch an affordable-housing project in north-end Winnipeg with members of the municipal and federal governments.
Government backbencher
Caldwell was re-elected in the 2003 provincial election, winning an easy victory over his Progressive Conservative opponent. He was originally retained as Family Services and Housing Minister, but left cabinet on November 4, 2003. He had been suffering from respiratory difficulties for some time, and Doer indicated he requested to be removed due to health concerns. Others have argued Doer was dissatisfied with Caldwell's performance and have suggested that the latter's health concerns, while legitimate, provided cover for a dismissal.
Caldwell served as a government backbencher after leaving cabinet. He became a staunch advocate for the relocation of Assiniboine Community College to the former BMHC site on Brandon's north hill, an initiative he had commenced during his tenure as Minister of Education. Caldwell also assumed leadership roles in local advocacy for development of the Western Manitoba Cancer Treatment Centre, provincial investment in flood protection for the City of Brandon, Brandon University, the Keystone Centre, the Provincial Exhibition of Manitoba and the hosting of the Memorial Cup. He also criticized some of his government's decisions, challenging Health Minister Theresa Oswald over details of the decision to spray malathion to control Winnipeg's mosquito population. He was re-elected in the 2007 provincial election, as the Doer governm
|
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] |
969924
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology%20of%20Kyoto
|
Cosmology of Kyoto
|
Cosmology of Kyoto is an adventure game developed by Softedge and published by Yano Electric. It was released for Japan in 1993, and then in North America, for the Macintosh in 1994 and then for the PC in 1995.
It is a game where the player, from a first-person perspective, explores ancient Kyoto city during 10th-11th century Japan. The game lacks a clear goal, but is instead nonlinear and emphasizes open exploration, giving players the freedom to explore the city and discover many pathways, buildings, situations, stories and secrets. The game deals with historical, horror, religious and educational themes, and features karma and reincarnation gameplay mechanics. Released on CD-ROM, the dialogues in the game are fully voiced in Japanese, with English subtitles in the localized North American version. The game was not a commercial success, but was critically acclaimed and attracted a cult following.
Gameplay
The game is controlled by clicking hotspots and text options when appropriate. The user also types in sentences, upon occasion. At the start, the player character is created by the player using a character creation system, with the player able to customize what the player character looks like. As the game begins, the player character is born and must take the clothes off a nearby corpse. The game does not have a clear goal, but is instead nonlinear and emphasizes open exploration, giving the player the freedom to explore Kyoto, with many pathways, buildings, situations, stories and secrets to discover throughout the city, including both realistic and supernatural elements. The progress through the city effects a journey through history, with a street map and online guide provided to ancient (and modern) Kyoto at various points through the game. It provides enough freedom to allow for the player to experiment with the game, such as using it as a resource for their own role-playing game campaign, for example.
The game uses karma and reincarnation gameplay mechanics, based on Buddhist concepts. During the game, the player will often die after being attacked by evil demons or robbers, and will then go to one of the realms of reincarnation, depending upon the player's conduct in that life. In these Buddhist hells, the player character is tortured in various ways. Once the player escapes hell, they are reborn, as a new character with a new appearance. If the player's with too much negative karma, they may be reincarnated as a dog rather than a human. After being reborn, the player must take the clothes from his or her last body to continue. As the player progresses through the city, new abilities and items are revealed that protect the player from death.
Plot
The game is set in the medieval city of Kyoto around the year 1000, during the Heian period of Japanese history. The game lacks an overall plot, but it instead presents fragmented narratives in a non-linear manner, as the player character encounters various non-player characters while wandering the city. These narratives are cross-referenced to an encyclopedia, providing background information as the narratives progress and as the player comes across various characters and locations, with various stories and related information appearing at distinct locations.
Many of the characters in the game are based on real-life characters from the city and their appearances in the game are often loosely based on tales from the Konjaku Monogatarishū. The game deals with religion and philosophy, particularly Buddhism and Buddhist philosophy, as well as myth and legend.
Production
The game's readme.txt file has the following quote:
"Today the outlook and spirit of the ancient capital is increasingly recognized as a key to the understanding of Japanese and East Asian civilization, throwing light on the roots of modern patterns and problems."
The game was authored using Macromedia software, and distributed in the United States by Scientia Software.
Reception
Upon release in North America, the game received wide critical acclaim. However, it was not a commercial success in North America, attracting only a devoted cult following, partly because of its limited production run making it difficult to find and partly because of its slow-paced gameplay.
Critical reception
In September 1994, a review by film critic Roger Ebert was published in Wired magazine, where he stated the "richness is almost overwhelming", noting "the resources of this game are limitless", that "no two players would have the same experience" and that he had barely "begun to scratch the surface" of the city despite exploring for two weeks. He stated it was "the most beguiling computer game I have encountered, a seamless blend of information, adventure, humor, and imagination" with "the gruesome side-by-side with the divine." He praised the "hauntingly effective" widescreen graphics, the "vivid facial characteristics" of the characters (describing them as "a cross" between "medieval Japanese art" and "modern Japanimation"), and the voices "filled with personality". He concluded it to be "a wonderful game" where there "is the sense, illusory but seductive, that one could wander this world indefinitely." Later in 2010, he mentioned it in a column on whether video games can be art. After previously arguing that video games are categorically not art, he stated, "In my actual experience, I have played Cosmology of Kyoto, which I enormously enjoyed, and Myst, for which I lacked the patience." Cosmology of Kyoto is the only video game that Ebert is known to have reviewed and enjoyed. In October 1994, Los Angeles Times published a review by David Coller, who described it as an "adventure-cultural-historical game" that is "graphically violent at times," but a "cerebral game" that "in no way resembles Doom or Rebel Assault", stating "you have to throw away your Western ideas about game play". He stated he could not find an ending "even after many hours of play" but praised the graphics a
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] |
969924
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology%20of%20Kyoto
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Cosmology of Kyoto
|
ering the city. These narratives are cross-referenced to an encyclopedia, providing background information as the narratives progress and as the player comes across various characters and locations, with various stories and related information appearing at distinct locations.
Many of the characters in the game are based on real-life characters from the city and their appearances in the game are often loosely based on tales from the Konjaku Monogatarishū. The game deals with religion and philosophy, particularly Buddhism and Buddhist philosophy, as well as myth and legend.
Production
The game's readme.txt file has the following quote:
"Today the outlook and spirit of the ancient capital is increasingly recognized as a key to the understanding of Japanese and East Asian civilization, throwing light on the roots of modern patterns and problems."
The game was authored using Macromedia software, and distributed in the United States by Scientia Software.
Reception
Upon release in North America, the game received wide critical acclaim. However, it was not a commercial success in North America, attracting only a devoted cult following, partly because of its limited production run making it difficult to find and partly because of its slow-paced gameplay.
Critical reception
In September 1994, a review by film critic Roger Ebert was published in Wired magazine, where he stated the "richness is almost overwhelming", noting "the resources of this game are limitless", that "no two players would have the same experience" and that he had barely "begun to scratch the surface" of the city despite exploring for two weeks. He stated it was "the most beguiling computer game I have encountered, a seamless blend of information, adventure, humor, and imagination" with "the gruesome side-by-side with the divine." He praised the "hauntingly effective" widescreen graphics, the "vivid facial characteristics" of the characters (describing them as "a cross" between "medieval Japanese art" and "modern Japanimation"), and the voices "filled with personality". He concluded it to be "a wonderful game" where there "is the sense, illusory but seductive, that one could wander this world indefinitely." Later in 2010, he mentioned it in a column on whether video games can be art. After previously arguing that video games are categorically not art, he stated, "In my actual experience, I have played Cosmology of Kyoto, which I enormously enjoyed, and Myst, for which I lacked the patience." Cosmology of Kyoto is the only video game that Ebert is known to have reviewed and enjoyed. In October 1994, Los Angeles Times published a review by David Coller, who described it as an "adventure-cultural-historical game" that is "graphically violent at times," but a "cerebral game" that "in no way resembles Doom or Rebel Assault", stating "you have to throw away your Western ideas about game play". He stated he could not find an ending "even after many hours of play" but praised the graphics and soundscape as "beautiful" and concluded it to be "truly unsettling." Stone Bridge Press founder Peter Goodman also praised the game, stating he had "never gotten to the end of it" but "it sure is beautiful", which Coller agreed with.
In issue 218 (June 1995) of Dragon magazine, it was reviewed by game designer David "Zeb" Cook in the "Eye of the Monitor" column. He described it as "a unique gaming experience" that is part "game, part history lesson, and part software toy," recommending it to players "looking for an adventure game unlike any they've ever seen" as "Cosmology of Kyoto is unlike anything else out there", noting how it departed from other adventure games, such as its lack of a clear goal other than being killed "over and over and over again" and how "you're just an ordinary person" with no special abilities. He described it as "frustrating, flawed, and fascinating", criticizing the slow pace, "limited" interaction, and slow CD-ROM loading times, yet found it "appealing", stating "the wonder of the setting and its approach outweighs these irritations" as there "are too many fascinating things to discover, from haunted houses to backgammon-playing demons" and the reincarnation mechanic gives the game "a certain freedom", enough that the player "could even use it as a resource for" their "own role-playing game" campaign. According to Cook, "Ultimately, Cosmology of Kyoto is best viewed as less a game and more a software toy, one of those things you plug in and fiddle with. Once you forget about winning and indulge your curiosity, the CD-ROM's strength truly shines." At the AUUG Conference in September 1995, Cosmology of Kyoto was described as "extremely interesting and groundbreaking", for "many aspects" such as the way it presents and cross-references its fragmented narratives in a non-linear way, the Buddhist themes, the way it draws from "the art and literature of Kyoto at about 1000 AD, the simple elegance of the screen design, and the beauty of the water-colour images used throughout."
Retrospective reception
Retrospectively, the game has also been critically well received. In 2008, video game journalist Jenn Frank retroactively compared it to contemporary survival horror games. She noted Cosmology of Kyoto lacks a "real plot or goal" but considered an "unfairness" to be characteristic of horror with "encounters with ghosts and demons" that are "often random, sudden, inescapable". She concluded it to be an "extremely eerie" and "Memorably frightening game." In 2011, Ryan McSwain of Hardcore Gaming 101 states that it "attempts to be many things", including "a game, an educational tool, and a work of art", concluding that "it manages to be all of these and more." After Ebert mentioned the game on his blog in 2010, Chris Person reviewed the game on Kotaku in 2012, where he described it as an "edu-horror" and "one of the most disturbing" games he had ever played, depicting themes such as poverty, sickness, suffering, and cruelty (s
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969930
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing-Stearman%20Model%2075
|
Boeing-Stearman Model 75
|
The Stearman (Boeing) Model 75 is a biplane formerly used as a military trainer aircraft, of which at least 10,626 were built in the United States during the 1930s and 1940s. Stearman Aircraft became a subsidiary of Boeing in 1934. Widely known as the Stearman, Boeing Stearman, or Kaydet, it served as a primary trainer for the United States Army Air Forces, the United States Navy (as the NS and N2S), and with the Royal Canadian Air Force as the Kaydet throughout World War II. After the conflict was over, thousands of surplus aircraft were sold on the civilian market. In the immediate postwar years, they became popular as crop dusters and sports planes, and for aerobatic and wing walking use in air shows.
Design and development
The Kaydet was a conventional biplane of rugged construction, with a large, fixed tailwheel undercarriage, and accommodation for the student and instructor in open cockpits in tandem. The radial engine was usually not cowled, although some Stearman operators choose to cowl the engine, most notably the Red Baron Stearman Squadron.
Operational history
Post-war usage
After World War II, thousands of surplus PT-17s were auctioned off to civilians and former military pilots. Many were modified for cropdusting use, with a hopper for pesticide or fertilizer fitted in place of the front cockpit. Additional equipment included pumps, spray bars, and nozzles mounted below the lower wings. A popular approved modification to increase the maximum takeoff weight and climb performance involved fitting a larger Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior engine and a constant-speed propeller.
Variants
Data from:United States Navy aircraft since 1911, Boeing aircraft since 1916
The U.S. Army Air Forces Kaydet had three different designations based on its power plant:
PT-13 with a Lycoming R-680 engine. Production was 2,141 in total for all models.
PT-13 Initial production, R-680-B4B engine, 26 built
PT-13A R-680-7 engine, 92 delivered 1937–38, Model A-75
PT-13B R-680-11 engine, 255 delivered 1939–40
PT-13C Six PT-13Bs were modified for instrument flying.
PT-13D PT-13As equipped with the R-680-17 engine, 353 delivered, Model E-75
PT-17 With a Continental R-670-5 engine, 3,519 were delivered.
PT-17A 18 PT-17s were equipped with blind-flying instrumentation.
PT-17B Three PT-17s were equipped with agricultural spraying equipment for pest control.
PT-18
PT-13 with a Jacobs R-755 engine, 150 built
PT-18A Six PT-18s were fitted with blind-flying instrumentation.
PT-27
Canadian PT-17: This designation was given to 300 aircraft supplied under Lend-Lease to the Royal Canadian Air Force.
The U.S. Navy had several versions, including:
NS
Up to 61 delivered, powered by surplus 220 hp (164 kW) Wright J-5 Whirlwind
N2S Known colloquially as the "Yellow Peril" from its overall-yellow paint scheme
N2S-1 R-670-14 engine, 250 delivered to the U.S. Navy
N2S-2 R-680-8 engine, 125 delivered to the U.S. Navy
N2S-3 R-670-4 engine, 1,875 delivered to the U.S. Navy
N2S-4 99 U.S. Army aircraft diverted to the U.S. Navy, plus 577 newly built aircraft
N2S-5 R-680-17 engine, 1,450 delivered to the U.S. Navy
Stearman 70
Original prototype, powered by Lycoming radial engine, temporary designation XPT-943 for evaluation
Model 73
Initial production version, 61 built for U.S. Navy as NS plus export variants
Model 73L3
Version for the Philippines, powered by R-680-4 or R-680C1 engines, seven built
Model A73B1
Seven aircraft for Cuban Air Force powered by Wright R-790 Whirlwind, delivered 1939–1940
Model A73L3
Improved version for the Philippines, three built
Stearman 75
(or X75) Evaluated by the U.S. Army as a primary trainer, the X75L3 became the PT-13 prototype. Variants of the 75 formed the PT-17 family.
Stearman 76
Export trainer and armed versions of the 75
Stearman 90 and 91
(or X90 and X91) productionized metal-frame version, became the XBT-17
Stearman XPT-943
The X70 evaluated at Wright Field
American Airmotive NA-75
Single-seat agricultural conversion of Model 75, fitted with new, high-lift wings
Operators
Argentine Air Force
Argentine Navy received 16 Model 76D1s 1936 to 1937 and 60 N2S Kaydet post-war; all were retired by the early 1960s
Bolivian Air Force
Brazilian Air Force model A75L3 and 76.
Royal Canadian Air Force received 301 PT-27s under Lend Lease.
Republic of China Air Force received 150 PT-17s under Lend-Lease, and 104 refurbished aircraft post war in Taiwan. The ROCAF used them until 1958.
Colombian Air Force
Cuban Air Force
Dominican Air Force
Hellenic Air Force
Guatemalan Air Force
Honduran Air Force
Imperial Iranian Air Force
Israeli Air Force purchased 20 PT-17s.
Mexican Air Force
Nicaraguan Air Force
Paraguayan Air Force
Peruvian Air Force
Philippine Army Air Corps
Philippine Air Force
United States Army Air Corps/United States Army Air Forces
United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
Venezuelan Air Force
Yugoslav Air Force
Surviving aircraft
A considerable number of Stearmans remain in flying condition throughout the world, as the type remains a popular sport plane and warbird.
Argentina
308 – N2S-5 airworthy at the Argentine Naval Aviation Museum in Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires.
Australia
75-6488 – B75N1 registered as VH-EYC, airworthy, owned by Steven Bradley, Southern Australia 5134
75-8314 – E75 Registered as VH-USE, airworthy, owned by Raalin, Western Australia 6208
Austria
75-5032 – PT-17 Registered as OE-AMM, airworthy at Hangar-7, Salzburg
Brazil
K-132 – A75L3 on display at the Museu Aeroespacial in Rio de Janeiro
K-210 – A76C3 on display at the Museu Aeroespacial in Rio de Janeiro
38010 – N2S-3 on display at the TAM Museum in São Carlos, São Paulo
Canada
41-8621 – PT-17 airworthy at the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in Hamilton, Ontario.
42-17456 – PT-13D owned by Daniel Jones of Lacombe, Alberta.
5284 – N2S-3 under restoration to airworthy with Daniel Jones of Lacombe, Alberta
5293 – N2S-3 owned by J. Kurtin of Collingw
|
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] |
969930
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing-Stearman%20Model%2075
|
Boeing-Stearman Model 75
|
N2S-4 99 U.S. Army aircraft diverted to the U.S. Navy, plus 577 newly built aircraft
N2S-5 R-680-17 engine, 1,450 delivered to the U.S. Navy
Stearman 70
Original prototype, powered by Lycoming radial engine, temporary designation XPT-943 for evaluation
Model 73
Initial production version, 61 built for U.S. Navy as NS plus export variants
Model 73L3
Version for the Philippines, powered by R-680-4 or R-680C1 engines, seven built
Model A73B1
Seven aircraft for Cuban Air Force powered by Wright R-790 Whirlwind, delivered 1939–1940
Model A73L3
Improved version for the Philippines, three built
Stearman 75
(or X75) Evaluated by the U.S. Army as a primary trainer, the X75L3 became the PT-13 prototype. Variants of the 75 formed the PT-17 family.
Stearman 76
Export trainer and armed versions of the 75
Stearman 90 and 91
(or X90 and X91) productionized metal-frame version, became the XBT-17
Stearman XPT-943
The X70 evaluated at Wright Field
American Airmotive NA-75
Single-seat agricultural conversion of Model 75, fitted with new, high-lift wings
Operators
Argentine Air Force
Argentine Navy received 16 Model 76D1s 1936 to 1937 and 60 N2S Kaydet post-war; all were retired by the early 1960s
Bolivian Air Force
Brazilian Air Force model A75L3 and 76.
Royal Canadian Air Force received 301 PT-27s under Lend Lease.
Republic of China Air Force received 150 PT-17s under Lend-Lease, and 104 refurbished aircraft post war in Taiwan. The ROCAF used them until 1958.
Colombian Air Force
Cuban Air Force
Dominican Air Force
Hellenic Air Force
Guatemalan Air Force
Honduran Air Force
Imperial Iranian Air Force
Israeli Air Force purchased 20 PT-17s.
Mexican Air Force
Nicaraguan Air Force
Paraguayan Air Force
Peruvian Air Force
Philippine Army Air Corps
Philippine Air Force
United States Army Air Corps/United States Army Air Forces
United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
Venezuelan Air Force
Yugoslav Air Force
Surviving aircraft
A considerable number of Stearmans remain in flying condition throughout the world, as the type remains a popular sport plane and warbird.
Argentina
308 – N2S-5 airworthy at the Argentine Naval Aviation Museum in Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires.
Australia
75-6488 – B75N1 registered as VH-EYC, airworthy, owned by Steven Bradley, Southern Australia 5134
75-8314 – E75 Registered as VH-USE, airworthy, owned by Raalin, Western Australia 6208
Austria
75-5032 – PT-17 Registered as OE-AMM, airworthy at Hangar-7, Salzburg
Brazil
K-132 – A75L3 on display at the Museu Aeroespacial in Rio de Janeiro
K-210 – A76C3 on display at the Museu Aeroespacial in Rio de Janeiro
38010 – N2S-3 on display at the TAM Museum in São Carlos, São Paulo
Canada
41-8621 – PT-17 airworthy at the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in Hamilton, Ontario.
42-17456 – PT-13D owned by Daniel Jones of Lacombe, Alberta.
5284 – N2S-3 under restoration to airworthy with Daniel Jones of Lacombe, Alberta
5293 – N2S-3 owned by J. Kurtin of Collingwood, Ontario
30083 – N2S-4 on display at the Reynolds-Alberta Museum in Wetaskiwin, Alberta
61105 – N2S-5 with Bruce Bond of Sarnia, Ontario
75-3498 – PT-17 airworthy owned by Great River Aviation Ltd. of Whitehorse, Yukon o/a Klondike Airways.
Colombia
FAC-62 – PT-17 airworthy
FAC-1995 – PT-17 airworthy
Iceland
T5-1556 – PT-17 is airworthy with Erling Pétur Erlingsson in Hafnarfjörður, Capital Region. It is the oldest airplane in Iceland. It was brought to the country in 1941 by the aircraft carrier and damaged in an accident in 1943.
Indonesia
PT-13D is on display at Dirgantara Mandala Museum in Yogyakarta. The aircraft is painted in Taloa Academy of Aeronautics livery.
Israel
2752 – PT-17 is airworthy at the Israeli Air Force Museum in Hatzerim.
Mexico
Three PT-17s are on display at the Air College.
Netherlands
75-7027 – PT-13B is airworthy, registered as PH-TOX, owned by Joe Brewer and based at Oostwold Airport.
75-7213 – N2S-3 is airworthy, registered as N9912H, owned by the Nordsiek family and based at Breda International Airport.
New Zealand
75-647 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-RJS
75-2055 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-BWR
75-2100 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-KJO
75-2724 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-STM
75-3132 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-TGA
75-3655 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-USN
75-4245 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-PJS
75-5064 – PT-13D Registered as ZK-BOE
75-5907 – PT-13D Registered as ZK-XAF
75-8025A – N2S-3 Registered as ZK-USA
Peru
PT-17 is on display at the Instituto de Estudios Históricos Aeroespaciales del Perú, Miraflores, Lima.
Spain
PT-13 on display at the Fundación Infante de Orleans in Cuatro Vientos, Madrid.
PT-17 on display at the Fundación Infante de Orleans in Cuatro Vientos, Madrid.
Switzerland
75-5436 – PT-13D is airworthy, registered as HB-RBG, and based at the Fliegermuseum Altenrhein. Built in 1943 and restored to airworthiness in 1989 after sustaining considerable damage during an emergency landing in the grounds of the Stadler Rail factory in Altenrhein due to engine failure.
Taiwan
PT-17 is on static display at the Aviation Education Exhibition Hall in Gangshan District, Kaohsiung City.
United States
Model 70 is airworthy at the Western Antique Aeroplane & Automobile Museum in Hood River, Oregon. It is the original prototype of the Model 75.
37-0099 – PT-13A is on static display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington.
41-7960 – PT-17 is airworthy at Mississippi State University in Starkville, Mississippi. It is used as a research aircraft and glider tow-plane.
41-8786 – PT-17 is in storage at the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
41-8882 – PT-17 on static display at the Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona.
41-25454 – PT-17 is airworthy with the Collings Foundation in Stow, Massachusetts.
41-25284 – PT-17 is on static display at the Hill Aerospace Museum in Roy, Utah.
41-25588 – PT-17 is airworthy at the Charles M. Schulz–Sonoma County Airport in Santa Rosa,
|
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] |
969930
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing-Stearman%20Model%2075
|
Boeing-Stearman Model 75
|
ood, Ontario
30083 – N2S-4 on display at the Reynolds-Alberta Museum in Wetaskiwin, Alberta
61105 – N2S-5 with Bruce Bond of Sarnia, Ontario
75-3498 – PT-17 airworthy owned by Great River Aviation Ltd. of Whitehorse, Yukon o/a Klondike Airways.
Colombia
FAC-62 – PT-17 airworthy
FAC-1995 – PT-17 airworthy
Iceland
T5-1556 – PT-17 is airworthy with Erling Pétur Erlingsson in Hafnarfjörður, Capital Region. It is the oldest airplane in Iceland. It was brought to the country in 1941 by the aircraft carrier and damaged in an accident in 1943.
Indonesia
PT-13D is on display at Dirgantara Mandala Museum in Yogyakarta. The aircraft is painted in Taloa Academy of Aeronautics livery.
Israel
2752 – PT-17 is airworthy at the Israeli Air Force Museum in Hatzerim.
Mexico
Three PT-17s are on display at the Air College.
Netherlands
75-7027 – PT-13B is airworthy, registered as PH-TOX, owned by Joe Brewer and based at Oostwold Airport.
75-7213 – N2S-3 is airworthy, registered as N9912H, owned by the Nordsiek family and based at Breda International Airport.
New Zealand
75-647 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-RJS
75-2055 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-BWR
75-2100 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-KJO
75-2724 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-STM
75-3132 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-TGA
75-3655 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-USN
75-4245 – PT-17 Registered as ZK-PJS
75-5064 – PT-13D Registered as ZK-BOE
75-5907 – PT-13D Registered as ZK-XAF
75-8025A – N2S-3 Registered as ZK-USA
Peru
PT-17 is on display at the Instituto de Estudios Históricos Aeroespaciales del Perú, Miraflores, Lima.
Spain
PT-13 on display at the Fundación Infante de Orleans in Cuatro Vientos, Madrid.
PT-17 on display at the Fundación Infante de Orleans in Cuatro Vientos, Madrid.
Switzerland
75-5436 – PT-13D is airworthy, registered as HB-RBG, and based at the Fliegermuseum Altenrhein. Built in 1943 and restored to airworthiness in 1989 after sustaining considerable damage during an emergency landing in the grounds of the Stadler Rail factory in Altenrhein due to engine failure.
Taiwan
PT-17 is on static display at the Aviation Education Exhibition Hall in Gangshan District, Kaohsiung City.
United States
Model 70 is airworthy at the Western Antique Aeroplane & Automobile Museum in Hood River, Oregon. It is the original prototype of the Model 75.
37-0099 – PT-13A is on static display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington.
41-7960 – PT-17 is airworthy at Mississippi State University in Starkville, Mississippi. It is used as a research aircraft and glider tow-plane.
41-8786 – PT-17 is in storage at the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
41-8882 – PT-17 on static display at the Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona.
41-25454 – PT-17 is airworthy with the Collings Foundation in Stow, Massachusetts.
41-25284 – PT-17 is on static display at the Hill Aerospace Museum in Roy, Utah.
41-25588 – PT-17 is airworthy at the Charles M. Schulz–Sonoma County Airport in Santa Rosa, California.
41-25623 – PT-17 is on display at Patriots Point in Charleston, South Carolina.
42-15687 – PT-27 is on display at the Vintage Flying Museum in Fort Worth, Texas.
42-16365 – PT-17 is on static display at the Museum of Aviation in Warner Robins, Georgia.
42-16388 – PT-17D is on static display at the March Field Air Museum near Riverside, California.
42-16691 – PT-17 is on static display at the Castle Air Museum in Atwater, California.
42-17591 – PT-13D is on static display at the Planes of Fame Air Museum in Chino, California.
42-17724 – PT-13D is on static display at the National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, DC. It was used in 1944 to train members of the Tuskegee Airmen.
42-17763 – PT-13D is on static display at the Planes of Fame Air Museum in Valle, Arizona.
42-17800 – PT-13D is on static display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft is the close (63rd) to the last one built and was donated to the museum in 1959 by the Boeing Aircraft Company, which purchased the Stearman Company in 1934.
3558 – N2S-2 is under restoration to airworthy at the Planes of Fame Air Museum in Chino, California.
5369 – N2S-3 is on static display at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. It was flown by George H. W. Bush during his initial training as a naval pilot.
7591 – N2S-3 is airworthy at the Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum in Titusville, Florida.
7718 – N2S-3 is airworthy at the Lone Star Flight Museum in Houston, Texas.
15923 – N2S is on static display at the Carolinas Aviation Museum in Charlotte, North Carolina.
29981 – N2S-4 is on display at the Air Zoo in Kalamazoo, Michigan.
38278 – N2S-3 is airworthy at the Tri-State Warbird Museum in Batavia, Ohio.
38490 – N2S-5 is airworthy at the Lone Star Flight Museum in Houston, Texas.
43197 – N2S-5 is under restoration to airworthy condition with the Commemorative Air Force Utah Wing in Heber City, Utah.
61064 – N2S-5 on static display at the Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia.
92468 – N2S-3 is on static display at the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Hawaii. It was flown by George H. W. Bush during his initial training as a naval pilot.
PT-17 is airworthy at the Military Aviation Museum in Pungo, Virginia.
N2S-3 is on display at the Western Antique Aeroplane and Automobile Museum in Hood River, Oregon.
Specifications (PT-17)
In popular culture
An iconic movie image is a Stearman cropduster chasing Cary Grant across a field in North by Northwest (the airplane that chased Grant was actually a Naval Aircraft Factory N3N Canary; the plane that hits the truck is a Stearman).
See also
References
Notes
.
Bibliography
Andrade, John. U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909, Midland Counties Publications, 1979,
Avis, Jim and Bowman, Martin. Stearman: A Pictorial History. Motorbooks, 1997. .
Bowers, Pet
|
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] |
969943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20toad
|
Common toad
|
The common toad, European toad, or in Anglophone parts of Europe, simply the toad (Bufo bufo, from Latin bufo "toad"), is a frog found throughout most of Europe (with the exception of Ireland, Iceland, and some Mediterranean islands), in the western part of North Asia, and in a small portion of Northwest Africa. It is one of a group of closely related animals that are descended from a common ancestral line of toads and which form a species complex. The toad is an inconspicuous animal as it usually lies hidden during the day. It becomes active at dusk and spends the night hunting for the invertebrates on which it feeds. It moves with a slow, ungainly walk or short jumps, and has greyish-brown skin covered with wart-like lumps.
Although toads are usually solitary animals, in the breeding season, large numbers of toads converge on certain breeding ponds, where the males compete to mate with the females. Eggs are laid in gelatinous strings in the water and later hatch out into tadpoles. After several months of growth and development, these sprout limbs and undergo metamorphosis into tiny toads. The juveniles emerge from the water and remain largely terrestrial for the rest of their lives.
The common toad seems to be in decline in part of its range, but overall is listed as being of "least concern" in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is threatened by habitat loss, especially by drainage of its breeding sites, and some toads get killed on the roads as they make their annual migrations. It has long been associated in popular culture and literature with witchcraft.
Taxonomy
The common toad was first given the name Rana bufo by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758. In this work, he placed all the frogs and toads in the single genus Rana. It later became apparent that this genus should be divided, and in 1768, the Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti placed the common toad in the genus Bufo, naming it Bufo bufo. The toads in this genus are included in the family Bufonidae, the true toads.
Various subspecies of B. bufo have been recognized over the years. The Caucasian toad is found in the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and was at one time classified as B. b. verrucosissima. It has a larger genome and differs from B. bufo morphologically and is now accepted as Bufo verrucosissimus. The spiny toad was classified as B. b. spinosus. It is found in France, the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb and grows to a larger size and has a spinier skin than its more northern counterparts with which it intergrades. It is now accepted as Bufo spinosus. The Gredos toad, B. b. gredosicola, is restricted to the Sierra de Gredos, a mountain range in central Spain. It has exceptionally large paratoid glands and its colour tends to be blotched rather than uniform. It is now considered to be a synonym of Bufo spinosus.
B. bufo is part of a species complex, a group of closely related species which cannot be clearly demarcated. Several modern species are believed to form an ancient group of related taxa from preglacial times. These are the spiny toad (B. spinosus), the Caucasian toad (B. verrucosissimus) and the Japanese common toad (B. japonicus). The European common toad (Bufo bufo) seems to have arisen more recently. It is believed that the range of the ancestral form extended into Asia but that isolation between the eastern and western species complexes occurred as a result of the development of the Central Asian Deserts during the Middle Miocene. The exact taxonomic relationships between these species remains unclear. A serological investigation into toad populations in Turkey undertaken in 2001 examined the blood serum proteins of Bufo verrucosissimus and Bufo spinosus. It found that the differences between the two were not significant and that therefore the former should be synonymized with the latter.
A study published in 2012 examined the phylogenetic relationships between the Eurasian and North African species in the Bufo bufo group and indicated a long evolutionary history for the group. Nine to thirteen million years ago, Bufo eichwaldi, a recently described species from south Azerbaijan and Iran, split from the main lineage. Further divisions occurred with Bufo spinosus splitting off about five million years ago when the Pyrenees were being uplifted, an event which isolated the populations in the Iberian Peninsula from those in the rest of Europe. The remaining European lineage split into Bufo bufo and Bufo verrucosissimus less than three million years ago during the Pleistocene. Very occasionally the common toad hybridizes with the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) or the European green toad (Bufo viridis).
Description
The common toad can reach about in length. Females are normally stouter than males and southern specimens tend to be larger than northern ones. The head is broad with a wide mouth below the terminal snout which has two small nostrils. There are no teeth. The bulbous, protruding eyes have yellow or copper coloured irises and horizontal slit-shaped pupils. Just behind the eyes are two bulging regions, the paratoid glands, which are positioned obliquely. They contain a noxious substance, bufotoxin, which is used to deter potential predators. The head joins the body without a noticeable neck and there is no external vocal sac. The body is broad and squat and positioned close to the ground. The fore limbs are short with the toes of the fore feet turning inwards. At breeding time, the male develops nuptial pads on the first three fingers. He uses these to grasp the female when mating. The hind legs are short relative to other frogs' legs and the hind feet have long, unwebbed toes. There is no tail. The skin is dry and covered with small wart-like lumps. The colour is a fairly uniform shade of brown, olive-brown or greyish-brown, sometimes partly blotched or banded with a darker shade. The common toad tends to be sexual
|
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969943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20toad
|
Common toad
|
t be clearly demarcated. Several modern species are believed to form an ancient group of related taxa from preglacial times. These are the spiny toad (B. spinosus), the Caucasian toad (B. verrucosissimus) and the Japanese common toad (B. japonicus). The European common toad (Bufo bufo) seems to have arisen more recently. It is believed that the range of the ancestral form extended into Asia but that isolation between the eastern and western species complexes occurred as a result of the development of the Central Asian Deserts during the Middle Miocene. The exact taxonomic relationships between these species remains unclear. A serological investigation into toad populations in Turkey undertaken in 2001 examined the blood serum proteins of Bufo verrucosissimus and Bufo spinosus. It found that the differences between the two were not significant and that therefore the former should be synonymized with the latter.
A study published in 2012 examined the phylogenetic relationships between the Eurasian and North African species in the Bufo bufo group and indicated a long evolutionary history for the group. Nine to thirteen million years ago, Bufo eichwaldi, a recently described species from south Azerbaijan and Iran, split from the main lineage. Further divisions occurred with Bufo spinosus splitting off about five million years ago when the Pyrenees were being uplifted, an event which isolated the populations in the Iberian Peninsula from those in the rest of Europe. The remaining European lineage split into Bufo bufo and Bufo verrucosissimus less than three million years ago during the Pleistocene. Very occasionally the common toad hybridizes with the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) or the European green toad (Bufo viridis).
Description
The common toad can reach about in length. Females are normally stouter than males and southern specimens tend to be larger than northern ones. The head is broad with a wide mouth below the terminal snout which has two small nostrils. There are no teeth. The bulbous, protruding eyes have yellow or copper coloured irises and horizontal slit-shaped pupils. Just behind the eyes are two bulging regions, the paratoid glands, which are positioned obliquely. They contain a noxious substance, bufotoxin, which is used to deter potential predators. The head joins the body without a noticeable neck and there is no external vocal sac. The body is broad and squat and positioned close to the ground. The fore limbs are short with the toes of the fore feet turning inwards. At breeding time, the male develops nuptial pads on the first three fingers. He uses these to grasp the female when mating. The hind legs are short relative to other frogs' legs and the hind feet have long, unwebbed toes. There is no tail. The skin is dry and covered with small wart-like lumps. The colour is a fairly uniform shade of brown, olive-brown or greyish-brown, sometimes partly blotched or banded with a darker shade. The common toad tends to be sexually dimorphic with the females being browner and the males greyer. The underside is a dirty white speckled with grey and black patches.
Other species with which the common toad could be confused include the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) and the European green toad (Bufo viridis). The former is usually smaller and has a yellow band running down its back while the latter has a distinctive mottled pattern. The paratoid glands of both are parallel rather than slanting as in the common toad. The common frog (Rana temporaria) is also similar in appearance but it has a less rounded snout, damp smooth skin, and usually moves by leaping.
Common toads can live for many years and have survived for fifty years in captivity. In the wild, common toads are thought to live for about ten to twelve years. Their age can be determined by counting the number of annual growth rings in the bones of their phalanges.
Distribution and habitat
After the common frog (Rana temporaria), the edible frog (Pelophylax esculentus) and the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), the common toad is the fourth most common amphibian in Europe. It is found throughout the continent with the exception of Iceland, the cold northern parts of Scandinavia, Ireland and a number of Mediterranean islands. These include Malta, Crete, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Its easterly range extends to Irkutsk in Siberia and its southerly range includes parts of northwestern Africa in the northern mountain ranges of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. A closely related variant lives in eastern Asia including Japan. The common toad is found at altitudes of up to in the southern part of its range. It is largely found in forested areas with coniferous, deciduous and mixed woodland, especially in wet locations. It also inhabits open countryside, fields, copses, parks and gardens, and often occurs in dry areas well away from standing water. female + male roles
Behaviour and lifecycle
The common toad usually moves by walking rather slowly or in short shuffling jumps involving all four legs. It spends the day concealed in a lair that it has hollowed out under foliage or beneath a root or a stone where its colouring makes it inconspicuous. It emerges at dusk and may travel some distance in the dark while hunting. It is most active in wet weather. By morning it has returned to its base and may occupy the same place for several months. It is voracious and eats woodlice, slugs, beetles, caterpillars, flies, earthworms and even small mice. Small, fast moving prey may be caught by a flick of the tongue while larger items are grabbed with the jaws. Having no teeth, it swallows food whole in a series of gulps. It does not recognise its prey as such but will try to consume any small, dark coloured, moving object it encounters at night. A research study showed that it would snap at a moving piece of black paper as if it were prey but would disregard a larger moving piece. Toads seem to use visual cues for f
|
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969943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20toad
|
Common toad
|
ly dimorphic with the females being browner and the males greyer. The underside is a dirty white speckled with grey and black patches.
Other species with which the common toad could be confused include the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) and the European green toad (Bufo viridis). The former is usually smaller and has a yellow band running down its back while the latter has a distinctive mottled pattern. The paratoid glands of both are parallel rather than slanting as in the common toad. The common frog (Rana temporaria) is also similar in appearance but it has a less rounded snout, damp smooth skin, and usually moves by leaping.
Common toads can live for many years and have survived for fifty years in captivity. In the wild, common toads are thought to live for about ten to twelve years. Their age can be determined by counting the number of annual growth rings in the bones of their phalanges.
Distribution and habitat
After the common frog (Rana temporaria), the edible frog (Pelophylax esculentus) and the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), the common toad is the fourth most common amphibian in Europe. It is found throughout the continent with the exception of Iceland, the cold northern parts of Scandinavia, Ireland and a number of Mediterranean islands. These include Malta, Crete, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Its easterly range extends to Irkutsk in Siberia and its southerly range includes parts of northwestern Africa in the northern mountain ranges of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. A closely related variant lives in eastern Asia including Japan. The common toad is found at altitudes of up to in the southern part of its range. It is largely found in forested areas with coniferous, deciduous and mixed woodland, especially in wet locations. It also inhabits open countryside, fields, copses, parks and gardens, and often occurs in dry areas well away from standing water. female + male roles
Behaviour and lifecycle
The common toad usually moves by walking rather slowly or in short shuffling jumps involving all four legs. It spends the day concealed in a lair that it has hollowed out under foliage or beneath a root or a stone where its colouring makes it inconspicuous. It emerges at dusk and may travel some distance in the dark while hunting. It is most active in wet weather. By morning it has returned to its base and may occupy the same place for several months. It is voracious and eats woodlice, slugs, beetles, caterpillars, flies, earthworms and even small mice. Small, fast moving prey may be caught by a flick of the tongue while larger items are grabbed with the jaws. Having no teeth, it swallows food whole in a series of gulps. It does not recognise its prey as such but will try to consume any small, dark coloured, moving object it encounters at night. A research study showed that it would snap at a moving piece of black paper as if it were prey but would disregard a larger moving piece. Toads seem to use visual cues for feeding and can see their prey at low light intensities where humans are unable to discern anything. Periodically, the common toad sheds its skin. This comes away in tattered pieces and is then consumed.
When attacked, the common toad adopts a characteristic stance, inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered. Its chief means of defence lies in the foul tasting secretion that is produced by its paratoid glands and other glands on its skin. This contains a toxin called bufagin and is enough to deter many predators although grass snakes seem to be unaffected by it. Other predators of adult toads include hedgehogs, rats and mink, and even domestic cats. Birds that feed on toads include herons, crows and birds of prey. Crows have been observed to puncture the skin with their beak and then peck out the animal's liver, thus avoiding the toxin. The tadpoles also exude noxious substances which deter fishes from eating them but not the great crested newt. Aquatic invertebrates that feed on toad tadpoles include dragonfly larvae, diving beetles and water boatmen. These usually avoid the noxious secretion by puncturing the tadpole's skin and sucking out its juices.
A parasitic fly, Lucilia bufonivora, attacks adult common toads. It lays its eggs on the toad's skin and when these hatch, the larvae crawl into the toad's nostrils and eat its flesh internally with lethal consequences. The European fingernail clam (Sphaerium corneum) is unusual in that it can climb up water plants and move around on its muscular foot. It sometimes clings to the toe of a common toad and this is believed to be one of the means by which it disperses to new locations.
In 2007, researchers using a remotely operated underwater vehicle to survey Loch Ness, Scotland, observed a common toad moving along the bottom of the lake at a depth of . They were surprised to find that an air-breathing animal could survive in such a location.
The annual life cycle of the common toad is divided into three periods: the winter sleep, the time of mating and feeding period.
Reproduction
The common toad emerges from hibernation in spring and there is a mass migration towards the breeding sites. The toads converge on certain ponds that they favour while avoiding other stretches of water that seem eminently suitable. Adults use the same location year after year and over 80% of males marked as juveniles have been found to return to the pond at which they were spawned. They find their way to these by using a suite of orientation cues, including olfactory and magnetic cues, but also visual cues help guide their journeys. Toads experimentally moved elsewhere and fitted with tracking devices have been found to be able to locate their chosen breeding pond when the displacement exceeded three kilometres (two miles).
The males arrive first and remain in the location for several weeks while the females only stay long enough to mate and spawn. Rather than fighting for the
|
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] |
969943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20toad
|
Common toad
|
eeding and can see their prey at low light intensities where humans are unable to discern anything. Periodically, the common toad sheds its skin. This comes away in tattered pieces and is then consumed.
When attacked, the common toad adopts a characteristic stance, inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered. Its chief means of defence lies in the foul tasting secretion that is produced by its paratoid glands and other glands on its skin. This contains a toxin called bufagin and is enough to deter many predators although grass snakes seem to be unaffected by it. Other predators of adult toads include hedgehogs, rats and mink, and even domestic cats. Birds that feed on toads include herons, crows and birds of prey. Crows have been observed to puncture the skin with their beak and then peck out the animal's liver, thus avoiding the toxin. The tadpoles also exude noxious substances which deter fishes from eating them but not the great crested newt. Aquatic invertebrates that feed on toad tadpoles include dragonfly larvae, diving beetles and water boatmen. These usually avoid the noxious secretion by puncturing the tadpole's skin and sucking out its juices.
A parasitic fly, Lucilia bufonivora, attacks adult common toads. It lays its eggs on the toad's skin and when these hatch, the larvae crawl into the toad's nostrils and eat its flesh internally with lethal consequences. The European fingernail clam (Sphaerium corneum) is unusual in that it can climb up water plants and move around on its muscular foot. It sometimes clings to the toe of a common toad and this is believed to be one of the means by which it disperses to new locations.
In 2007, researchers using a remotely operated underwater vehicle to survey Loch Ness, Scotland, observed a common toad moving along the bottom of the lake at a depth of . They were surprised to find that an air-breathing animal could survive in such a location.
The annual life cycle of the common toad is divided into three periods: the winter sleep, the time of mating and feeding period.
Reproduction
The common toad emerges from hibernation in spring and there is a mass migration towards the breeding sites. The toads converge on certain ponds that they favour while avoiding other stretches of water that seem eminently suitable. Adults use the same location year after year and over 80% of males marked as juveniles have been found to return to the pond at which they were spawned. They find their way to these by using a suite of orientation cues, including olfactory and magnetic cues, but also visual cues help guide their journeys. Toads experimentally moved elsewhere and fitted with tracking devices have been found to be able to locate their chosen breeding pond when the displacement exceeded three kilometres (two miles).
The males arrive first and remain in the location for several weeks while the females only stay long enough to mate and spawn. Rather than fighting for the right to mate with a female, male toads may settle disputes by means of the pitch of their voice. Croaking provides a reliable sign of body size and hence of prowess. Nevertheless, fights occur in some instances. In a study at one pond where males outnumbered females by four or five to one, it was found that 38% of the males won the right to mate by defeating rivals in combat or by displacing other males already mounted on females. Male toads generally outnumber female toads at breeding ponds. A Swedish study found that female mortality was higher than that of males and that 41% of females did not come to the breeding pond in the spring and missed a year before reproducing again.
The males mount the females' backs, grasping them with their fore limbs under the armpits in a grip that is known as amplexus. The males are enthusiastic, will try to grasp fish or inanimate objects and often mount the backs of other males. Sometimes several toads form a heap, each male trying to grasp the female at the base. It is a stressful period and mortality is high among breeding toads. A successful male stays in amplexus for several days and, as the female lays a long, double string of small black eggs, he fertilises them with his sperm. As the pair wander piggyback around the shallow edges of the pond, the gelatinous egg strings, which may contain 3000 to 6000 eggs and be in length, get tangled in plant stalks.
The strings of eggs absorb water and swell in size, and small tadpoles hatch out after two to three weeks. At first they cling to the remains of the strings and feed on the jelly. They later attach themselves to the underside of the leaves of water weed before becoming free swimming. The tadpoles at first look similar to those of the common frog (Rana temporaria) but they are a darker colour, being blackish above and dark grey below. They can be distinguished from the tadpoles of other species by the fact that the mouth is the same width as the space between the eyes, and this is twice as large as the distance between the nostrils. Over the course of a few weeks their legs develop and their tail gradually gets reabsorbed. By twelve weeks of age they are miniature toads measuring about long and ready to leave the pond.
Development and growth
The common toad reaches maturity at three to seven years old but there is great variability between populations. Juveniles are often parasitised by the lung nematode Rhabdias bufonis. This slows growth rates and reduces stamina and fitness. Larger juveniles at metamorphosis always outgrow smaller ones that have been reared in more crowded ponds. Even when they have heavy worm burdens, large juveniles grow faster than smaller individuals with light worm burdens. After several months of heavy worm infection, some juveniles in a study were only half as heavy as control juveniles. Their parasite-induced anorexia caused a decrease in food intake and some died. Another study investigated whether the use of nitrogenous
|
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] |
969943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20toad
|
Common toad
|
right to mate with a female, male toads may settle disputes by means of the pitch of their voice. Croaking provides a reliable sign of body size and hence of prowess. Nevertheless, fights occur in some instances. In a study at one pond where males outnumbered females by four or five to one, it was found that 38% of the males won the right to mate by defeating rivals in combat or by displacing other males already mounted on females. Male toads generally outnumber female toads at breeding ponds. A Swedish study found that female mortality was higher than that of males and that 41% of females did not come to the breeding pond in the spring and missed a year before reproducing again.
The males mount the females' backs, grasping them with their fore limbs under the armpits in a grip that is known as amplexus. The males are enthusiastic, will try to grasp fish or inanimate objects and often mount the backs of other males. Sometimes several toads form a heap, each male trying to grasp the female at the base. It is a stressful period and mortality is high among breeding toads. A successful male stays in amplexus for several days and, as the female lays a long, double string of small black eggs, he fertilises them with his sperm. As the pair wander piggyback around the shallow edges of the pond, the gelatinous egg strings, which may contain 3000 to 6000 eggs and be in length, get tangled in plant stalks.
The strings of eggs absorb water and swell in size, and small tadpoles hatch out after two to three weeks. At first they cling to the remains of the strings and feed on the jelly. They later attach themselves to the underside of the leaves of water weed before becoming free swimming. The tadpoles at first look similar to those of the common frog (Rana temporaria) but they are a darker colour, being blackish above and dark grey below. They can be distinguished from the tadpoles of other species by the fact that the mouth is the same width as the space between the eyes, and this is twice as large as the distance between the nostrils. Over the course of a few weeks their legs develop and their tail gradually gets reabsorbed. By twelve weeks of age they are miniature toads measuring about long and ready to leave the pond.
Development and growth
The common toad reaches maturity at three to seven years old but there is great variability between populations. Juveniles are often parasitised by the lung nematode Rhabdias bufonis. This slows growth rates and reduces stamina and fitness. Larger juveniles at metamorphosis always outgrow smaller ones that have been reared in more crowded ponds. Even when they have heavy worm burdens, large juveniles grow faster than smaller individuals with light worm burdens. After several months of heavy worm infection, some juveniles in a study were only half as heavy as control juveniles. Their parasite-induced anorexia caused a decrease in food intake and some died. Another study investigated whether the use of nitrogenous fertilisers affects the development of common toad tadpoles. The toadlets were kept in dilute solutions of ammonium nitrate of various strengths. It was found that at certain concentrations, which were well above any normally found in the field, growth was increased and metamorphosis accelerated, but at others, there was no significant difference between the experimental tadpoles and controls. Nevertheless, certain unusual swimming patterns and a few deformities were found among the experimental animals.
A comparison was made between the growth rate of newly metamorphosed juveniles from different altitudes and latitudes, the specimens studied being from Norway, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands and France. At first the growth rates for males and females was identical. By the time they became mature their growth rate had slowed down to about 21% of the initial rate and they had reached 95% of their expected adult size. Some females that were on a biennial breeding cycle carried on growing rapidly for a longer time. Adjusting for differences in temperature and the length of the growing season, the toads grew and matured at much the same rate from the four colder localities. These juveniles reached maturity after 1.09 years for males and 1.55 years for females. However, the young toads from lowland France grew faster and longer to a much greater size taking an average 1.77 years for males and 2.49 years for females before reaching maturity.
Winter sleep
Common toads winter in various holes in the ground, sometimes in basements, often in droves with other amphibians. Rarely they spend the winter in flowing waters with the common frogs and green frogs.
Conservation
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species considers the common toad as being of "least concern". This is because it has a wide distribution and is, over most of its range, a common species. It is not particularly threatened by habitat loss because it is adaptable and is found in deciduous and coniferous forests, scrubland, meadows, parks and gardens. It prefers damp areas with dense foliage. The major threats it faces include loss of habitat locally, the drainage of wetlands where it breeds, agricultural activities, pollution, and mortality on roads. Chytridiomycosis, an infectious disease of amphibians, has been reported in common toads in Spain and the United Kingdom and may affect some populations.
There are parts of its range where the common toad seems to be in decline. In Spain, increased aridity and habitat loss have led to a diminution in numbers and it is regarded as "near threatened". A population in the Sierra de Gredos mountain range is facing predation by otters and increased competition from the frog Pelophylax perezi. Both otter and frog seem to be extending their ranges to higher altitudes. The common toad cannot be legally sold or traded in the United Kingdom but there is a slow decline in toad numbers and it has therefore been declared a Biodiversity Action Plan
|
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] |
969943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20toad
|
Common toad
|
fertilisers affects the development of common toad tadpoles. The toadlets were kept in dilute solutions of ammonium nitrate of various strengths. It was found that at certain concentrations, which were well above any normally found in the field, growth was increased and metamorphosis accelerated, but at others, there was no significant difference between the experimental tadpoles and controls. Nevertheless, certain unusual swimming patterns and a few deformities were found among the experimental animals.
A comparison was made between the growth rate of newly metamorphosed juveniles from different altitudes and latitudes, the specimens studied being from Norway, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands and France. At first the growth rates for males and females was identical. By the time they became mature their growth rate had slowed down to about 21% of the initial rate and they had reached 95% of their expected adult size. Some females that were on a biennial breeding cycle carried on growing rapidly for a longer time. Adjusting for differences in temperature and the length of the growing season, the toads grew and matured at much the same rate from the four colder localities. These juveniles reached maturity after 1.09 years for males and 1.55 years for females. However, the young toads from lowland France grew faster and longer to a much greater size taking an average 1.77 years for males and 2.49 years for females before reaching maturity.
Winter sleep
Common toads winter in various holes in the ground, sometimes in basements, often in droves with other amphibians. Rarely they spend the winter in flowing waters with the common frogs and green frogs.
Conservation
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species considers the common toad as being of "least concern". This is because it has a wide distribution and is, over most of its range, a common species. It is not particularly threatened by habitat loss because it is adaptable and is found in deciduous and coniferous forests, scrubland, meadows, parks and gardens. It prefers damp areas with dense foliage. The major threats it faces include loss of habitat locally, the drainage of wetlands where it breeds, agricultural activities, pollution, and mortality on roads. Chytridiomycosis, an infectious disease of amphibians, has been reported in common toads in Spain and the United Kingdom and may affect some populations.
There are parts of its range where the common toad seems to be in decline. In Spain, increased aridity and habitat loss have led to a diminution in numbers and it is regarded as "near threatened". A population in the Sierra de Gredos mountain range is facing predation by otters and increased competition from the frog Pelophylax perezi. Both otter and frog seem to be extending their ranges to higher altitudes. The common toad cannot be legally sold or traded in the United Kingdom but there is a slow decline in toad numbers and it has therefore been declared a Biodiversity Action Plan priority species. In Russia, it is considered to be a "Rare Species" in the Bashkortostan Republic, the Tatarstan Republic, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and the Irkutsk Oblast, but during the 1990s, it became more abundant in Moscow Oblast.
It has been found that urban populations of common toad occupying small areas and isolated by development show a lower level of genetic diversity and reduced fitness as compared to nearby rural populations. The researchers demonstrated this by genetic analysis and by noting the greater number of physical abnormalities among urban as against rural tadpoles when raised in a controlled environment. It was considered that long term depletion in numbers and habitat fragmentation can reduce population persistence in such urban environments.
Roadkill
Many toads are killed by traffic while migrating to their breeding grounds. In Europe they have the highest rate of mortality from roadkill among amphibians. Many of the deaths take place on stretches of road where streams flow underneath showing that migration routes often follow water courses. In some places in Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, Northern Italy and Poland, special tunnels have been constructed so that toads can cross under roads in safety. In other places, local wildlife groups run "toad patrols", carrying the amphibians across roads at busy crossing points in buckets. The toads start moving at dusk and for them to travel far, the temperature needs to remain above . On a warm wet night they may continue moving all night but if it cools down, they may stop earlier. An estimate was made of the significance of roadkill in toad populations in the Netherlands. The number of females killed in the spring migration on a quiet country road (ten vehicles per hour) was compared with the number of strings of eggs laid in nearby fens. A 30% mortality rate was found, with the rate for deaths among males likely to be of a similar order.
Bufotoxin
The main toxic substance found in the parotoid gland and skin of the common toad is called bufotoxin. It was first isolated by Heinrich Wieland and his colleagues in 1922 and they succeeded in identifying its structure about 20 years later. Meanwhile, other workers succeeded in isolating the same compound and its parent steroid bufotalin from the Japanese toad (Bufo japonicus). By 1986, researchers at the Arizona State University had succeeded in synthesizing the toad venom constituents bufotalin, bufalitoxin and bufotoxin. The chemical formula of bufotoxin is C40H60N4O10. Its physical effects resemble those of digitalis which in small doses increases the strength with which the heart muscle contracts and which is used in the treatment of congestive heart failure. The skin of the cane toad contains enough toxin to cause serious symptoms or even death in animals, including humans. Clinical effects include severe irritation and pain to eyes, mouth, nose and throat, cardiovascular and respiratory symptoms, paralysi
|
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969943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20toad
|
Common toad
|
priority species. In Russia, it is considered to be a "Rare Species" in the Bashkortostan Republic, the Tatarstan Republic, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and the Irkutsk Oblast, but during the 1990s, it became more abundant in Moscow Oblast.
It has been found that urban populations of common toad occupying small areas and isolated by development show a lower level of genetic diversity and reduced fitness as compared to nearby rural populations. The researchers demonstrated this by genetic analysis and by noting the greater number of physical abnormalities among urban as against rural tadpoles when raised in a controlled environment. It was considered that long term depletion in numbers and habitat fragmentation can reduce population persistence in such urban environments.
Roadkill
Many toads are killed by traffic while migrating to their breeding grounds. In Europe they have the highest rate of mortality from roadkill among amphibians. Many of the deaths take place on stretches of road where streams flow underneath showing that migration routes often follow water courses. In some places in Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, Northern Italy and Poland, special tunnels have been constructed so that toads can cross under roads in safety. In other places, local wildlife groups run "toad patrols", carrying the amphibians across roads at busy crossing points in buckets. The toads start moving at dusk and for them to travel far, the temperature needs to remain above . On a warm wet night they may continue moving all night but if it cools down, they may stop earlier. An estimate was made of the significance of roadkill in toad populations in the Netherlands. The number of females killed in the spring migration on a quiet country road (ten vehicles per hour) was compared with the number of strings of eggs laid in nearby fens. A 30% mortality rate was found, with the rate for deaths among males likely to be of a similar order.
Bufotoxin
The main toxic substance found in the parotoid gland and skin of the common toad is called bufotoxin. It was first isolated by Heinrich Wieland and his colleagues in 1922 and they succeeded in identifying its structure about 20 years later. Meanwhile, other workers succeeded in isolating the same compound and its parent steroid bufotalin from the Japanese toad (Bufo japonicus). By 1986, researchers at the Arizona State University had succeeded in synthesizing the toad venom constituents bufotalin, bufalitoxin and bufotoxin. The chemical formula of bufotoxin is C40H60N4O10. Its physical effects resemble those of digitalis which in small doses increases the strength with which the heart muscle contracts and which is used in the treatment of congestive heart failure. The skin of the cane toad contains enough toxin to cause serious symptoms or even death in animals, including humans. Clinical effects include severe irritation and pain to eyes, mouth, nose and throat, cardiovascular and respiratory symptoms, paralysis and seizures, increased salivation, vomiting, hyperkalemia, cyanosis and hallucinations. There is no known anti-venom. Treatment consists of supporting respiratory and cardiovascular functions, prevention of absorption and electrocardiography to monitor the condition. Atropine, phenytoin, cholestyramine and lidocaine may prove useful in its management.
Cultural significance
The toad has long been considered to be an animal of ill omen or a connection to a spirit world. This may have its origins in the fact that it is at home both on land and in the water. It may cause repugnance because of its drab, wart-like skin, its slow movements and the way it emerges from some dark hole. In Europe in the Middle Ages, the toad was associated with the Devil, for whom a coat-of-arms was invented emblazoned with three toads. It was known that the toad could poison people and, as the witch's familiar, it was thought to possess magical powers. Even ordinary people made use of dried toads, their bile, faeces and blood. In some areas, the finding of a toad in a house was considered evidence that a witch was present. In the Basque Country, the familiars were believed to be toads wearing elegant robes. These were herded by children who were being trained as witches. Between 1610 and 1612, the Spanish inquisitor Alonso de Salazar Frías investigated witchcraft in the region and searched the houses of suspected witches for dressed toads. He found none. These witches were reputed to use undomesticated toads as ingredients in their liniments and brews.
An English folk tale tells how an old woman, a supposed witch, cursed her landlord and all his possessions when he demanded the unpaid rent for her cottage. Soon afterwards, a large toad fell on his wife and caused her to collapse. The toad was thrown into the fire but escaped with severe burns. Meanwhile, the old witch's cottage had caught fire and she was badly burnt. By next day, both toad and witch had died, and it was found that the woman's burns exactly mirrored those of the toad.
The saliva of the toad was considered poisonous and was known as "sweltered venom" and it was believed that it could spit or vomit poisonous fire. Toads were associated with devils and demons and in Paradise Lost, John Milton depicted Satan as a toad when he poured poison into Eve's ear. The First Witch in Shakespeare's Macbeth gave instructions on using a toad in the concoction of spells:
It was also believed that there was a jewel inside a toad's head, a "toadstone", that when worn as a necklace or ring would warn the wearer of attempts to poison them. Shakespeare mentioned this in As You Like It:
Mr. Toad Esq. is one of the main characters in the children's novel The Wind in the Willows, by Kenneth Grahame. This has been dramatized by several authors including A. A. Milne who called his play Toad of Toad Hall. Mr. Toad is a conceited, anthropomorphic toad and in the book he composes a ditty in his own praise which starts like thi
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] |
969960
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
Timba is a Cuban genre of music based on Cuban son with salsa, American
funk/R&B and the strong influence of Afro-Cuban folkloric music. Timba rhythm sections differ from their salsa counterparts, because timba emphasizes the bass drum, which is not used in salsa bands. Timba and salsa use the same tempo range and they both use the standard conga marcha. Almost all timba bands have a trap drummer. Timbas also often break the basic tenets of arranging the music in-clave. Timba is considered to be a highly aggressive type of music, with rhythm and "swing" taking precedence over melody and lyricism. Associated with timba is a radically sexual and provocative dance style known as despelote (literally meaning chaos or frenzy). It is a dynamic evolution of salsa, full of improvisation and Afro Cuban heritage, based on son, Rumba and mambo, taking inspiration from Latin jazz, and is highly percussive with complex sections. Timba is more flexible and innovative than salsa, and includes a more diverse range of styles. Timba incorporates heavy percussion and rhythms which originally came from the barrios of Cuba.
Etymology
{{Quote|The word timba is part of a large family of mb and ng words that made their way into Spanish from African languages. Among the hundreds of other examples are tumba, rumba, marimba, kalimba, mambo, conga, and bongo.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 11).}}
Before it became the newest Cuban music and dance craze, timba was a word with several different uses yet no particular definition, mostly heard within the Afro-Cuban genre of rumba. A timbero was a complimentary term for a musician, and timba often referred to the collection of drums in a folklore ensemble. Since the 1990s, timba has referred to Cuba's intense and slightly more aggressive music and dance form.
History
As opposed to salsa, whose roots are strictly from son and the Cuban conjunto bands of the 1940s and 1950s, timba represents a synthesis of many folkloric (rumba, guaguancó, batá drumming and the sacred songs of santería.), and popular sources (even taking inspiration from non Afro-Cuban musical genres such as rock, jazz, funk, and Puerto Rican folk). According to Vincenzo Perna, author of Timba: The Sound of the Cuban Crisis, timba needs to be spoken of because of its musical, cultural, social, and political reasons; its sheer popularity in Cuba, its novelty and originality as a musical style, the skill of its practitioners, its relationship with both local traditions and the culture of the black Diaspora, its meanings, and the way its style brings to light the tension points within society. In addition to timbales, timba drummers make use of the drum set, further distinguishing the sound from that of mainland salsa. The use of synthesised keyboard is also common. Timba songs tend to sound more innovative, experimental and frequently more virtuosic than salsa pieces; horn parts are usually fast, at times even bebop influenced, and stretch to the extreme ranges of all instruments. Bass and percussion patterns are similarly unconventional. Improvisation is commonplace.
Precursors
The main precursors of timba are three bands: Los Van Van, Irakere (both in the 1970s) and NG La Banda (1988), though many other bands (e.g. Son 14, Orquesta Original de Manzanillo, Ritmo Oriental, Orquesta Revé) were influential in setting new standards.
Orquesta Revé
Elio Revé Matos was a Cuban musician and song writer, a noted percusionist, born 23 June 1930 in Guantánamo. In 1956, he formed Elio Revé y su Charangón aka Orquesta Revé. Revé's Charanga included Trombones and Batá drum and he became known as the Father of Changüí for his contribution to that musical genre. In the 1970s, directed by timbalero Revé, Orquesta Revé saw innovations in timbales playing.
Elio Revé Sr. was an incomparable talent scout. He may also have been a difficult man to work for, if the number of musicians who have left his band is any indication! The incredible legacy of famous Revé spinoff bands began shortly after his group relocated from Guantanamo to Havana in 1956. In 1958, most of the members left to form Ritmo Oriental. In 1965, his young pianist Chucho Valdés left to pursue a jazz career, which resulted in the formation of Irakere. In 1968, bassist, Juan Formell, Pupy Pedroso and others left to form Los Van Van. In the late 70s, Armando Gola, German Velazco and Pepe Maza left to form Orquesta 440. Singer Félix Baloy left after 1982 and enjoyed a long career with Adalberto Álvarez and as a solo artist. Arranger Ignacio Herrera also left after 1982. We are not sure what happened to Herrera, but based on his stunning arrangements on the 1982 album, he certainly had the potential to create a brilliant spinoff band of his own. Another "missing-in-action" Revé alumnus who might well extended to this list was Tony García, the pianist and musical director of the early 1990s and the arranger of Revé famous "Mi salsa tiene sandunga" which became the theme song of Cuba television's most important music show, Mi Salsa.
It was Herrera's departure that led Revé to focus his talent scouting spotlight on another composer and arranger Juan Carlos Alfonso. Alfonso is also the brilliant pianist whose tumbaos will be studied in this section. After five years and four classic albums which elevated Revé to Van Van-like popularity and earned them the nickname La explosión del momento, Alfonso himself left the band in 1988 to form Dan Den... Suffice it to say that the history of Revé is like the corner of Hollywood and Vine if you study it carefully enough, you'll encounter most of the important Cuban musicians of the last 50 years in the process.—Moore (2010: v. 4: 49)
Others associated with Revé included the singer Yumurí. Elio was the father of musician brothers, Oderquis Reve and Elio jr (Elito), the latter continuing a direct link to his father's music with Elito Revé y su Charangón. Singer and writer, Emilio Frías “El Niño”, gained experience with the grou
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
nstruments. Bass and percussion patterns are similarly unconventional. Improvisation is commonplace.
Precursors
The main precursors of timba are three bands: Los Van Van, Irakere (both in the 1970s) and NG La Banda (1988), though many other bands (e.g. Son 14, Orquesta Original de Manzanillo, Ritmo Oriental, Orquesta Revé) were influential in setting new standards.
Orquesta Revé
Elio Revé Matos was a Cuban musician and song writer, a noted percusionist, born 23 June 1930 in Guantánamo. In 1956, he formed Elio Revé y su Charangón aka Orquesta Revé. Revé's Charanga included Trombones and Batá drum and he became known as the Father of Changüí for his contribution to that musical genre. In the 1970s, directed by timbalero Revé, Orquesta Revé saw innovations in timbales playing.
Elio Revé Sr. was an incomparable talent scout. He may also have been a difficult man to work for, if the number of musicians who have left his band is any indication! The incredible legacy of famous Revé spinoff bands began shortly after his group relocated from Guantanamo to Havana in 1956. In 1958, most of the members left to form Ritmo Oriental. In 1965, his young pianist Chucho Valdés left to pursue a jazz career, which resulted in the formation of Irakere. In 1968, bassist, Juan Formell, Pupy Pedroso and others left to form Los Van Van. In the late 70s, Armando Gola, German Velazco and Pepe Maza left to form Orquesta 440. Singer Félix Baloy left after 1982 and enjoyed a long career with Adalberto Álvarez and as a solo artist. Arranger Ignacio Herrera also left after 1982. We are not sure what happened to Herrera, but based on his stunning arrangements on the 1982 album, he certainly had the potential to create a brilliant spinoff band of his own. Another "missing-in-action" Revé alumnus who might well extended to this list was Tony García, the pianist and musical director of the early 1990s and the arranger of Revé famous "Mi salsa tiene sandunga" which became the theme song of Cuba television's most important music show, Mi Salsa.
It was Herrera's departure that led Revé to focus his talent scouting spotlight on another composer and arranger Juan Carlos Alfonso. Alfonso is also the brilliant pianist whose tumbaos will be studied in this section. After five years and four classic albums which elevated Revé to Van Van-like popularity and earned them the nickname La explosión del momento, Alfonso himself left the band in 1988 to form Dan Den... Suffice it to say that the history of Revé is like the corner of Hollywood and Vine if you study it carefully enough, you'll encounter most of the important Cuban musicians of the last 50 years in the process.—Moore (2010: v. 4: 49)
Others associated with Revé included the singer Yumurí. Elio was the father of musician brothers, Oderquis Reve and Elio jr (Elito), the latter continuing a direct link to his father's music with Elito Revé y su Charangón. Singer and writer, Emilio Frías “El Niño”, gained experience with the group before forming El Niño y La Verdad in June 2013.
Son 14
Grandes Èxitos EGREM CD 0325 (Son 14). This CD is an excellent compilation of the best songs of Son 14 during the years in which Adalberto Álvarez led the band (1979–1983). . .
Adalberto Álvarez, born in Havana and raised in Camagüey, had already had some success writing songs for Rumbavana when Rodulfo Vaillant, one of the most recorded composers of the era, invited him come to Santiago as the musical director and pianist of a new group called Son 14. The group got off to a roaring start in 1979 with Adalberto's first massive hit, "A Bayamo en coche." Alvarez left after three classic albums (plus a fourth featuring Omara Portuondo singing songs from the other three) but Son 14 has stayed together, recording sporadically, under the leadership of Eduardo "Tiburiuni" Morales, the original singer of "A Bayamo en coche."
Adalberto Álvarez was among the first to popularize the use of "gospel" chord progressions using major triads built on II, III and VI. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, more and more elements of the pop music harmonic palette became acceptable in Latin music and by the 1990s, anything that produced a hook became fair game, resulting in an explosion of brilliant songwriting while North American salsa continued to be constrained by the formulaic limitations of the genre.—Moore (2010: v. 4: 22)
Orquesta Ritmo Oriental
Ritmo Oriental, often known as "La Ritmo", was one of the most popular bands in Cuba in the 1970s and 80s.[ . . . ] La Ritmo's violin tumbaos were endlessly inventive and Humberto Perera, often the arranger as well as the bassist, created bass tumbaos which were both thematic and filled the holes created by the other tumbaos. Pianist Luis Adolfo Peoalver mostly stayed within the typical style of the 1970s and 80s, locking down the groove with the violin section and Lazaga's machete-style güiro, while Perera, drummer Daniel Díaz, conguero Juan Claro Bravo and the band's extraordinary arrangers soared to unprecedented creative heights.—Moore (2010: v. 3: 33)
Original de Manzanillo
Original de Manzanillo added guitar to the standard charanga instrumentation. Less adventurous than Ritmo Oriental and the other modern charangas, it was distinguished primarily by its singer and composer, Candido Fabré, an extraordinary performer who influenced almost every subsequent singer with his uncanny ability to improvise lyrics. Original de Manzanillo's pianist and leader Wilfredo "Pachy" Naranjo is still with the group and his son, Pachy Jr., is the current pianist for Orquesta Revé and has recorded with many others, including Angel Bonne.—Moore (2010: v. 3: 33)
Los Van Van
In 1969, Formell left Revé to form his own band, Los Van Van, taking with him many of Revé's musicians, including pianist Pupy Pedroso. His first new songs bore much in common with the music he created for Revé although he began calling it songo instead of changüí.—Moore (2010: v. 3: 16)
Los Van Van deve
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
p before forming El Niño y La Verdad in June 2013.
Son 14
Grandes Èxitos EGREM CD 0325 (Son 14). This CD is an excellent compilation of the best songs of Son 14 during the years in which Adalberto Álvarez led the band (1979–1983). . .
Adalberto Álvarez, born in Havana and raised in Camagüey, had already had some success writing songs for Rumbavana when Rodulfo Vaillant, one of the most recorded composers of the era, invited him come to Santiago as the musical director and pianist of a new group called Son 14. The group got off to a roaring start in 1979 with Adalberto's first massive hit, "A Bayamo en coche." Alvarez left after three classic albums (plus a fourth featuring Omara Portuondo singing songs from the other three) but Son 14 has stayed together, recording sporadically, under the leadership of Eduardo "Tiburiuni" Morales, the original singer of "A Bayamo en coche."
Adalberto Álvarez was among the first to popularize the use of "gospel" chord progressions using major triads built on II, III and VI. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, more and more elements of the pop music harmonic palette became acceptable in Latin music and by the 1990s, anything that produced a hook became fair game, resulting in an explosion of brilliant songwriting while North American salsa continued to be constrained by the formulaic limitations of the genre.—Moore (2010: v. 4: 22)
Orquesta Ritmo Oriental
Ritmo Oriental, often known as "La Ritmo", was one of the most popular bands in Cuba in the 1970s and 80s.[ . . . ] La Ritmo's violin tumbaos were endlessly inventive and Humberto Perera, often the arranger as well as the bassist, created bass tumbaos which were both thematic and filled the holes created by the other tumbaos. Pianist Luis Adolfo Peoalver mostly stayed within the typical style of the 1970s and 80s, locking down the groove with the violin section and Lazaga's machete-style güiro, while Perera, drummer Daniel Díaz, conguero Juan Claro Bravo and the band's extraordinary arrangers soared to unprecedented creative heights.—Moore (2010: v. 3: 33)
Original de Manzanillo
Original de Manzanillo added guitar to the standard charanga instrumentation. Less adventurous than Ritmo Oriental and the other modern charangas, it was distinguished primarily by its singer and composer, Candido Fabré, an extraordinary performer who influenced almost every subsequent singer with his uncanny ability to improvise lyrics. Original de Manzanillo's pianist and leader Wilfredo "Pachy" Naranjo is still with the group and his son, Pachy Jr., is the current pianist for Orquesta Revé and has recorded with many others, including Angel Bonne.—Moore (2010: v. 3: 33)
Los Van Van
In 1969, Formell left Revé to form his own band, Los Van Van, taking with him many of Revé's musicians, including pianist Pupy Pedroso. His first new songs bore much in common with the music he created for Revé although he began calling it songo instead of changüí.—Moore (2010: v. 3: 16)
Los Van Van developed what came to be known as the 'songo' genre, making countless innovations to traditional son, both in style and orchestration. In Latin music, genres are commonly attributed to rhythms (though of course not every rhythm is a genre), and whether or not timba is a genre of its own is debatable. Songo, however, can be considered to be a genre and is in all likelihood the only genre in the world played by only one orchestra, Los Van Van. The songo rhythm was created by percussionist José Luís Quintana ("Changuito"), at the behest of Van Van bandleader Juan Formell. Since the band's creation in 1969, Los Van Van has been the most popular band in Cuba, and are themselves considered to be one of the major timba bands.
Irakere
Irakere is known largely as a Latin jazz band outside Cuba, yet much of their music can be considered to be popular dance music. Like Los Van Van, Irakere experimented with many different styles, mixing Afro-Cuban rhythms with son and jazz. While bandleader Chucho Valdés is revered as one of the great jazz musicians of Cuba, both jazz and timba prodigies came out of the orchestra, including flutist José Luis Cortés ("El Tosco"), who assembled a group of highly talented musicians to form NG La Banda in the mid-1980s. NG experimented with different styles, including Latin jazz, for several years, before recording what is considered by many to be the first timba album, En La Calle, in 1989.
"Special period" (early 1990s)
During the Special Period of the early 1990s, timba became a significant form of expression for the cultural and social upheaval that occurred. The Special Period was a time of economic downfalls and hardships for the Cuban people. In the wake of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Cuba's main trading partner, the country experienced its worse crisis since the revolution. Cuba now opened its doors to tourism, and the influx of tourists to the island helped broaden the appeal of the music and dance of timba. The stand-off between Cuba and most of the rest of the world gave timba space to breathe new life into the city, causing the nightlife and party scene to grow. Timba's danceable beat and energizing sound was popular among the tourists at a time when the music and dance scene was indirectly helping provide some support for Cuba's struggling economy.
While timba developed at the beginning of a decade when Afro-Cuban conservatory graduates were turning to popular music catering to inner-city youth, its growth followed that of the music and tourist industries, as the state tried to address the economic challenges of the post-Soviet world. Timba lyrics generated considerable controversy due to their use of vulgar and witty street language, and also because they made veiled references to public concerns including prostitution, crime, and the effects of tourism on the island, which had only rarely been addressed by other musicians. This was not normal in Cuban texts before. There was also a reaffirmation of
|
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969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
loped what came to be known as the 'songo' genre, making countless innovations to traditional son, both in style and orchestration. In Latin music, genres are commonly attributed to rhythms (though of course not every rhythm is a genre), and whether or not timba is a genre of its own is debatable. Songo, however, can be considered to be a genre and is in all likelihood the only genre in the world played by only one orchestra, Los Van Van. The songo rhythm was created by percussionist José Luís Quintana ("Changuito"), at the behest of Van Van bandleader Juan Formell. Since the band's creation in 1969, Los Van Van has been the most popular band in Cuba, and are themselves considered to be one of the major timba bands.
Irakere
Irakere is known largely as a Latin jazz band outside Cuba, yet much of their music can be considered to be popular dance music. Like Los Van Van, Irakere experimented with many different styles, mixing Afro-Cuban rhythms with son and jazz. While bandleader Chucho Valdés is revered as one of the great jazz musicians of Cuba, both jazz and timba prodigies came out of the orchestra, including flutist José Luis Cortés ("El Tosco"), who assembled a group of highly talented musicians to form NG La Banda in the mid-1980s. NG experimented with different styles, including Latin jazz, for several years, before recording what is considered by many to be the first timba album, En La Calle, in 1989.
"Special period" (early 1990s)
During the Special Period of the early 1990s, timba became a significant form of expression for the cultural and social upheaval that occurred. The Special Period was a time of economic downfalls and hardships for the Cuban people. In the wake of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Cuba's main trading partner, the country experienced its worse crisis since the revolution. Cuba now opened its doors to tourism, and the influx of tourists to the island helped broaden the appeal of the music and dance of timba. The stand-off between Cuba and most of the rest of the world gave timba space to breathe new life into the city, causing the nightlife and party scene to grow. Timba's danceable beat and energizing sound was popular among the tourists at a time when the music and dance scene was indirectly helping provide some support for Cuba's struggling economy.
While timba developed at the beginning of a decade when Afro-Cuban conservatory graduates were turning to popular music catering to inner-city youth, its growth followed that of the music and tourist industries, as the state tried to address the economic challenges of the post-Soviet world. Timba lyrics generated considerable controversy due to their use of vulgar and witty street language, and also because they made veiled references to public concerns including prostitution, crime, and the effects of tourism on the island, which had only rarely been addressed by other musicians. This was not normal in Cuban texts before. There was also a reaffirmation of the Cuban identity. The difference of opinion between the old traditionalists going abroad for success and the young bloods stuck at home – and the difference in financial rewards – was bound to lead to friction. In the subsequent time, timba has largely crossed over from an accessible, mainstream medium to one that is directed at wealthy elites in high-end venues. This places timba in contrast with rap, which has come in some ways to fill the role of the music of the masses.
NG La Banda
Though NG La Banda had huge successes in the early 1990s, and is credited with being the first timba band, the band's fortunes have been mixed, partly because they remain highly experimental.
NG La Banda, usually considered the first timba band, was among the first groups to standardize the use of gears and song-specific piano tumbaos, as well as being the first in a series of bands to experience "mania"-like popularity in Havana during the heady days of the 1990s.
In terms of its members, however, NG La Banda was far from new. They had already been playing under the name "Nueva Generación", recording several eclectic jazz albums. Five members came directly from Irakere: the leader, José Luis "El Tosco" Cortés, and the entire horn section, known affectionately to fans as Los metales de terror for their flawless and aggressive execution of El Tosco's virtuosic hornlines. . . El Tosco [had a] stint in the 1970s with Los Van Van. His initial concept for NG La Banda was to combine the popular music appeal of Los Van Van with the jazz influences and stupendous musicianship of Irakere.
The rhythm section was no less virtuosic than the horns. Drummer Calixto Oviedo, Bassist Feliciano Arango, drummer Giraldo Piloto and conguero Wickly Nogueras went on to become legends on their respective instruments. Most important from our point of view was the pianist Rodulfo "Peruchín" Argudín . . .
The original singers were Tony Calla and Issac Delgado, from Ritmo Oriental and Pachito Alonso, respectively. Delgado left NG to form his own band in about 1991. Piloto joined him about a year later as drummer, composer and musical director. El Tosco replaced Issac with another great singer, Antonio Mena . . .—Moore (2010: v. 5: 14)
La Charanga Habanera
What came to be known as the "timba explosion" started not with NG La Banda, but with the debut album of La Charanga Habanera, "Me Sube La Fiebre", in 1992. This album included all the elements of what is now known as timba, and the band dominated the scene until the break-up of the original band in 1998 (they have since reformed).
Charanga Habanera was . . . catapulted to superstar status in the 1990s. Like NG La Banda, the charangueros had copious amounts of gear changes, song-specific tumbaos and attitude, but their musical style was drastically different and it kept changing and evolving with each album. Charanga Habanera's albums can be bought in their original form, which is fortunate because they're conceived as albums
|
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] |
969960
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
the Cuban identity. The difference of opinion between the old traditionalists going abroad for success and the young bloods stuck at home – and the difference in financial rewards – was bound to lead to friction. In the subsequent time, timba has largely crossed over from an accessible, mainstream medium to one that is directed at wealthy elites in high-end venues. This places timba in contrast with rap, which has come in some ways to fill the role of the music of the masses.
NG La Banda
Though NG La Banda had huge successes in the early 1990s, and is credited with being the first timba band, the band's fortunes have been mixed, partly because they remain highly experimental.
NG La Banda, usually considered the first timba band, was among the first groups to standardize the use of gears and song-specific piano tumbaos, as well as being the first in a series of bands to experience "mania"-like popularity in Havana during the heady days of the 1990s.
In terms of its members, however, NG La Banda was far from new. They had already been playing under the name "Nueva Generación", recording several eclectic jazz albums. Five members came directly from Irakere: the leader, José Luis "El Tosco" Cortés, and the entire horn section, known affectionately to fans as Los metales de terror for their flawless and aggressive execution of El Tosco's virtuosic hornlines. . . El Tosco [had a] stint in the 1970s with Los Van Van. His initial concept for NG La Banda was to combine the popular music appeal of Los Van Van with the jazz influences and stupendous musicianship of Irakere.
The rhythm section was no less virtuosic than the horns. Drummer Calixto Oviedo, Bassist Feliciano Arango, drummer Giraldo Piloto and conguero Wickly Nogueras went on to become legends on their respective instruments. Most important from our point of view was the pianist Rodulfo "Peruchín" Argudín . . .
The original singers were Tony Calla and Issac Delgado, from Ritmo Oriental and Pachito Alonso, respectively. Delgado left NG to form his own band in about 1991. Piloto joined him about a year later as drummer, composer and musical director. El Tosco replaced Issac with another great singer, Antonio Mena . . .—Moore (2010: v. 5: 14)
La Charanga Habanera
What came to be known as the "timba explosion" started not with NG La Banda, but with the debut album of La Charanga Habanera, "Me Sube La Fiebre", in 1992. This album included all the elements of what is now known as timba, and the band dominated the scene until the break-up of the original band in 1998 (they have since reformed).
Charanga Habanera was . . . catapulted to superstar status in the 1990s. Like NG La Banda, the charangueros had copious amounts of gear changes, song-specific tumbaos and attitude, but their musical style was drastically different and it kept changing and evolving with each album. Charanga Habanera's albums can be bought in their original form, which is fortunate because they're conceived as albums, with meticulous attention paid to artwork, track lists, and overall concept. Every note on these albums holds up under intense scrutiny. I've written extensive articles on each of the first five albums on www.timba.com and I've begun another, more technical batch of analyses of the same albums from the point of view of the rhythm section and its gear changes. Charanga Habanera's timba.com section also includes extremely accurate transcriptions of every lyric, including guías, on each of these albums.
In terms of instrumentation, Charanga Habanera is about as far from being a charanga as it could possibly be, and there's an interesting story behind the band's misleading name. The group's leader, David Calzado, who had played violin for Ritmo Oriental in the 1980s, landed a multi-year contract to play traditional charanga music each summer at a large Monte Carlo tourist hotel, hence the then-appropriate band name Charanga Habanera. Every weekend, the band would play the opening set for touring bands such as Earth, Wind and Fire, Stevie Wonder, James Brown and Kool & The Gang, and the charangueros became huge fans of both the music and stage shows of North American R&B. In the off-season, back in Cuba, there was very little work for their traditional music and the whole country was going wild for NG La Banda. In response, Calzado and musical director/pianist Juan Carlos Gonzalez changed everything about Charanga Habanera except the name. They added three trumpets and a sax, a bongosero, a kick drum, a synthesizer, elaborate costumes and stage shows, and a completely new kind of music which didn't sound like NG La Banda or Earth, Wind and Fire, but which worked pure musical magic on all levels. The piano tumbaos and arrangements . . . were nothing short of sublime.
Charanga Habanera underwent three distinct style periods in the 1993–1997 period, represented by the three albums pictured above. An earlier album, Love Fever (Me sube la fiebre), fits stylistically with Hey You Loca and even shares two important songs : Me sube la fiebre and Para el llanto. If you catch Charanga fever, there are three important classics on Love Fever that weren't re-recorded on Hey You Loca: "Extraños ateos", "Pregón de chocolate" and "Te voy a liquidar."—Moore (2010: v. 5: 16)
Since then a large number of bands have sprung up in Cuba and internationally, many of the best known being headed or staffed by former members of the above-mentioned bands. Some important figures and bands include: Pachito Alonso y sus Kini Kini, Azúcar Negra, Bamboleo, La Charanga Habanera, Charanga Forever, Los Dan Den, Alain Pérez, Issac Delgado, Tirso Duarte, Klimax, Manolín "El Médico de la salsa", Manolito y su Trabuco, NG La Banda, Paulo FG, Pupy y Los que Son Son (directed by César "Pupy" Pedroso, former pianist of Los Van Van), and Los Van Van.
Manolín "El Médico de la salsa"
If the early 1990s popularity of NG La Banda and Charanga Habanera was unprecedented, the response to the a
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
, with meticulous attention paid to artwork, track lists, and overall concept. Every note on these albums holds up under intense scrutiny. I've written extensive articles on each of the first five albums on www.timba.com and I've begun another, more technical batch of analyses of the same albums from the point of view of the rhythm section and its gear changes. Charanga Habanera's timba.com section also includes extremely accurate transcriptions of every lyric, including guías, on each of these albums.
In terms of instrumentation, Charanga Habanera is about as far from being a charanga as it could possibly be, and there's an interesting story behind the band's misleading name. The group's leader, David Calzado, who had played violin for Ritmo Oriental in the 1980s, landed a multi-year contract to play traditional charanga music each summer at a large Monte Carlo tourist hotel, hence the then-appropriate band name Charanga Habanera. Every weekend, the band would play the opening set for touring bands such as Earth, Wind and Fire, Stevie Wonder, James Brown and Kool & The Gang, and the charangueros became huge fans of both the music and stage shows of North American R&B. In the off-season, back in Cuba, there was very little work for their traditional music and the whole country was going wild for NG La Banda. In response, Calzado and musical director/pianist Juan Carlos Gonzalez changed everything about Charanga Habanera except the name. They added three trumpets and a sax, a bongosero, a kick drum, a synthesizer, elaborate costumes and stage shows, and a completely new kind of music which didn't sound like NG La Banda or Earth, Wind and Fire, but which worked pure musical magic on all levels. The piano tumbaos and arrangements . . . were nothing short of sublime.
Charanga Habanera underwent three distinct style periods in the 1993–1997 period, represented by the three albums pictured above. An earlier album, Love Fever (Me sube la fiebre), fits stylistically with Hey You Loca and even shares two important songs : Me sube la fiebre and Para el llanto. If you catch Charanga fever, there are three important classics on Love Fever that weren't re-recorded on Hey You Loca: "Extraños ateos", "Pregón de chocolate" and "Te voy a liquidar."—Moore (2010: v. 5: 16)
Since then a large number of bands have sprung up in Cuba and internationally, many of the best known being headed or staffed by former members of the above-mentioned bands. Some important figures and bands include: Pachito Alonso y sus Kini Kini, Azúcar Negra, Bamboleo, La Charanga Habanera, Charanga Forever, Los Dan Den, Alain Pérez, Issac Delgado, Tirso Duarte, Klimax, Manolín "El Médico de la salsa", Manolito y su Trabuco, NG La Banda, Paulo FG, Pupy y Los que Son Son (directed by César "Pupy" Pedroso, former pianist of Los Van Van), and Los Van Van.
Manolín "El Médico de la salsa"
If the early 1990s popularity of NG La Banda and Charanga Habanera was unprecedented, the response to the arrival of the next superstar group bordered on the unbelievable: the Cuban equivalent of Beatlemania. The unlikely star was Manuel "Manolín" Gonzalez, an amateur songwriter whom NG's El Tosco discovered at med school and famously dubbed "El Médico de la Salsa". Manolín's music was as different from Charanga Habanera as Charanga Habanera was from NG La Banda. His creative team included several arrangers, including the great Luis Bu, a brilliant pianist, Chaka Nápoles . . . and an incredibly powerful and creative rhythm section. As influential as Manolín was from a strictly musical point of view, his charisma, popularity and unprecedented earning power had an even more seismic impact, causing a level of excitement among musicians that had not been seen since the 1950s, if ever. To borrow a phrase from Reggie Jackson, El Médico de la Salsa was "the straw that stirs the drink."—Moore (2010: v. 5: 18)
Paulito FG
Paulo Fernández Gallo, aka Paulito FG, Pablo FG or Paulo FG, joined Issac Delgado and Manolìn as the three top singer-bandleaders of the 1990s. The other major bands of the era, from Los Van Van to Bamboleo, were led by musicians and featured a "front line" of two to four lead singers who took turns singing lead while the others sang coro.
Paulito's vocal style is characterized by razor-sharp accuracy and an ability to reinvent the melodies of his compositions with each performance. Like a basketball point guard he was able to call gear changes spontaneously and only Issac Delgado's band was able to vary their performances as much from night to night. Paulito's band, the "Elite", was indeed an elite force, with the best or one of the best players in Havana on nearly every instrument. Many of the members had stayed on from the Opus 13 days. Paulito wrote almost all of his material and had a brilliant chemistry with arranger Juan Ceruto and his all-star rhythm section, resulting in some of the most intricate and original arrangements of the 1990s. Aesthetically, Paulito's music seems to share a kinship with Manolín's but from our point of view a more useful comparison is with Delgado. Delgado's and Paulito's were arguably the greatest live timba bands from the point of view of being able to use gears and improvisation to make each performance of a song different from one concert to the next. Each group had wonderfully complex and flexible gear systems, and each had a string of brilliant pianists. Many of the top pianists played in both bands at different points. Paulito's pianists were Emilio Morales, Sergio Noroña, Pepe Rivero, Yaniel "El Majá" Matos, Rolando Luna, and Roberto "Cucurucho" Carlos. Delgado's were Tony Pérez, Melón Lewis, Pepe Rivero, Yaniel "El Maja" Matos, Roberto "Cucurucho" Carlos, Rolando Luna and Tony Rodríguez.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 20)
Manolito y su Trabuco
Manolito y su Trabuco's front line has included some of the best singers of the era, including Rosendo "El Gallo" Díaz, Sixto "El Indio" Llorente (who sang many of th
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
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Timba
|
rrival of the next superstar group bordered on the unbelievable: the Cuban equivalent of Beatlemania. The unlikely star was Manuel "Manolín" Gonzalez, an amateur songwriter whom NG's El Tosco discovered at med school and famously dubbed "El Médico de la Salsa". Manolín's music was as different from Charanga Habanera as Charanga Habanera was from NG La Banda. His creative team included several arrangers, including the great Luis Bu, a brilliant pianist, Chaka Nápoles . . . and an incredibly powerful and creative rhythm section. As influential as Manolín was from a strictly musical point of view, his charisma, popularity and unprecedented earning power had an even more seismic impact, causing a level of excitement among musicians that had not been seen since the 1950s, if ever. To borrow a phrase from Reggie Jackson, El Médico de la Salsa was "the straw that stirs the drink."—Moore (2010: v. 5: 18)
Paulito FG
Paulo Fernández Gallo, aka Paulito FG, Pablo FG or Paulo FG, joined Issac Delgado and Manolìn as the three top singer-bandleaders of the 1990s. The other major bands of the era, from Los Van Van to Bamboleo, were led by musicians and featured a "front line" of two to four lead singers who took turns singing lead while the others sang coro.
Paulito's vocal style is characterized by razor-sharp accuracy and an ability to reinvent the melodies of his compositions with each performance. Like a basketball point guard he was able to call gear changes spontaneously and only Issac Delgado's band was able to vary their performances as much from night to night. Paulito's band, the "Elite", was indeed an elite force, with the best or one of the best players in Havana on nearly every instrument. Many of the members had stayed on from the Opus 13 days. Paulito wrote almost all of his material and had a brilliant chemistry with arranger Juan Ceruto and his all-star rhythm section, resulting in some of the most intricate and original arrangements of the 1990s. Aesthetically, Paulito's music seems to share a kinship with Manolín's but from our point of view a more useful comparison is with Delgado. Delgado's and Paulito's were arguably the greatest live timba bands from the point of view of being able to use gears and improvisation to make each performance of a song different from one concert to the next. Each group had wonderfully complex and flexible gear systems, and each had a string of brilliant pianists. Many of the top pianists played in both bands at different points. Paulito's pianists were Emilio Morales, Sergio Noroña, Pepe Rivero, Yaniel "El Majá" Matos, Rolando Luna, and Roberto "Cucurucho" Carlos. Delgado's were Tony Pérez, Melón Lewis, Pepe Rivero, Yaniel "El Maja" Matos, Roberto "Cucurucho" Carlos, Rolando Luna and Tony Rodríguez.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 20)
Manolito y su Trabuco
Manolito y su Trabuco's front line has included some of the best singers of the era, including Rosendo "El Gallo" Díaz, Sixto "El Indio" Llorente (who sang many of the Orquesta Aliamén . . . and Carlos Kalunga, who sang many of the recommended Klímax songs in the previous section. Manolito's 1990s recordings also feature one of the best and most thoughtful synthesizer players, Osiris Martínez, who now plays with Los Que Son Son. Manolito has a great musical chemistry with the groupís other prolific composer, singer Ricardo Amaray. Many of Trabuco's biggest hits result from Amaray's unabashed R&B influences being filtered through Simonet's strong Cuban aesthetic and arranging genius.
Like Issac Delgado, Manolito made CDs that mixed the aggressive hardcore timba he played in concert with various other styles designed to appeal to foreign buyers cumbias targeting South American audiences for example. Manolito's many timba masterpieces are spread across his 17-year discography a few on each album.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 22)
Bamboleo
Like Manolín, Bamboleo began life as one of El Tosco's pet projects. Led by pianist Lázaro Valdés Jr., one of timba's most original arrangers, they have an instantly recognizable sound, with R&B and jazz fusion elements seamlessly integrated with aggressive timba, and a complex system of hand signals that allow bloques to be spontaneously built from smaller units. Only Issac Delgado and Paulito FG surpass Bamboleo in terms of using gear changes to vary live performances from night to night.–Moore (2010: v. 5: 23)
Klimax
Klímax leader Giraldo Piloto is one of the most important figures in all of Cuban music history. His father and namesake was half of the great songwriting team of Piloto y Vera and his uncle was the legendary percussionist Guillermo Barreto. Surpassing both famous relatives, Piloto won the timba.com readers poll for Best Timba Drummer and came in fourth for Best Songwriter. He left NG La Banda because it didnít afford him enough opportunity to write. As a freelancer he wrote three important songs for Charanga Habanera, including their breakthrough hit, "Me sube la fiebre." After joining Issac, he continued to write prolifically.
When Piloto founded Klimax in 1995 his writing became even more melodically, harmonically and lyrically original, sometimes straying into controversial areas that resulted in songs being censored by the government and always pushing the envelope of musical creativity in wonderful and varied ways. Klimax is the most harmonically original and sophisticated popular music band in Cuban history.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 21)
Bakuleye
Bakuleye, known as a magic wand that awakens a deity living under the Earth, is another popular band in Cuba known for its timba. The band's creator, Pedro Pablo Vargas, describes Bakuleye as the awakening of new ideas. The music of Bakuleye is a fusion of different musical rhythms such as Latin jazz, boleros, ballads, bachata, and especially salsa. As one of the most promising groups from Cuba, Bakuleye has received favorable press and television coverage.
Outside Cuba
Other than in Cuba, a few timba bands appeared i
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
e Orquesta Aliamén . . . and Carlos Kalunga, who sang many of the recommended Klímax songs in the previous section. Manolito's 1990s recordings also feature one of the best and most thoughtful synthesizer players, Osiris Martínez, who now plays with Los Que Son Son. Manolito has a great musical chemistry with the groupís other prolific composer, singer Ricardo Amaray. Many of Trabuco's biggest hits result from Amaray's unabashed R&B influences being filtered through Simonet's strong Cuban aesthetic and arranging genius.
Like Issac Delgado, Manolito made CDs that mixed the aggressive hardcore timba he played in concert with various other styles designed to appeal to foreign buyers cumbias targeting South American audiences for example. Manolito's many timba masterpieces are spread across his 17-year discography a few on each album.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 22)
Bamboleo
Like Manolín, Bamboleo began life as one of El Tosco's pet projects. Led by pianist Lázaro Valdés Jr., one of timba's most original arrangers, they have an instantly recognizable sound, with R&B and jazz fusion elements seamlessly integrated with aggressive timba, and a complex system of hand signals that allow bloques to be spontaneously built from smaller units. Only Issac Delgado and Paulito FG surpass Bamboleo in terms of using gear changes to vary live performances from night to night.–Moore (2010: v. 5: 23)
Klimax
Klímax leader Giraldo Piloto is one of the most important figures in all of Cuban music history. His father and namesake was half of the great songwriting team of Piloto y Vera and his uncle was the legendary percussionist Guillermo Barreto. Surpassing both famous relatives, Piloto won the timba.com readers poll for Best Timba Drummer and came in fourth for Best Songwriter. He left NG La Banda because it didnít afford him enough opportunity to write. As a freelancer he wrote three important songs for Charanga Habanera, including their breakthrough hit, "Me sube la fiebre." After joining Issac, he continued to write prolifically.
When Piloto founded Klimax in 1995 his writing became even more melodically, harmonically and lyrically original, sometimes straying into controversial areas that resulted in songs being censored by the government and always pushing the envelope of musical creativity in wonderful and varied ways. Klimax is the most harmonically original and sophisticated popular music band in Cuban history.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 21)
Bakuleye
Bakuleye, known as a magic wand that awakens a deity living under the Earth, is another popular band in Cuba known for its timba. The band's creator, Pedro Pablo Vargas, describes Bakuleye as the awakening of new ideas. The music of Bakuleye is a fusion of different musical rhythms such as Latin jazz, boleros, ballads, bachata, and especially salsa. As one of the most promising groups from Cuba, Bakuleye has received favorable press and television coverage.
Outside Cuba
Other than in Cuba, a few timba bands appeared in Miami, Florida, where a large concentration of Cuban-Americans reside. This became possible due to members of some timba bands moving to Miami, such as Isaac Delgado, Manolín "El Médico de la Salsa", Dany Lozada (former singer and composer for Charanga Habanera), and Pepito Gómez (former singer in Pupy y Los Que Son Son) but eventually decided to relocate elsewhere (to Spain, Mexico, and New York).
Others include Carlos Manuel, El Pikete, Michel Calvo, Jorge Gomez and "Tiempo Libre" (who received Grammy nominations in 2005 for their album "Arroz con Mango" and in 2006 for their album "Lo que esperabas"), Los 10 de la Salsa, Chaka and his group "El Tumbao", and Tomasito Cruz and his Cuban Timba All Stars.
In Peru, timba is also prominent with no fewer than 30 bands dedicated to promote Cuban music, the most well known of which are Mayimbe and Team Cuba. Others include: Mangu, Camagüey, A Conquistar, Explosión Habana, N'Samble, La Novel, D'Farándula, Bembe, Son de Timba, Los Trabucos, Yambú and Yare.
Also, Lima is hometown for Cuban musicians such as Dantes Cardosa and Michel Maza (former lead singer for Charanga Habanera) and Caroband.
Stylistic aspects
Dance and culture
Harmony
Arranging
Rhythms
Timba rhythm sections differ from their salsa counterparts in many integral ways from the instruments themselves, to the individual patterns of each instrument, to the way those patterns are combined into gears, to the way the group navigates between those gears. The areas where salsa and timba are most similar are the tempo range and the part of the largest bell, played by the bongosero in salsa and, depending on the band, by either the bongosero, timbalero or drummer in timba.
The bell played by the timbalero in salsa is sometimes played the same way by the timbalero or drummer in timba, but in timba bands where one person plays both bell patterns, a different pattern, or a much looser series of improvised patterns, is used.
The time-honored standard conga marcha used universally in salsa is also often used in timba, but many other variations are also used and some congueros actually compose specific marchas for each song. Many of these timba conga marchas are twice or even four times the length of the standard conga marcha (or tumbao).
Tomás Cruz developed several adaptions of folkloric rhythms when working in Paulito FG's timba band of the 1990s. Cruz's creations offered clever counterpoints to the bass and chorus. Many of his tumbaos span two or even four claves in duration, something very rarely done previously. He also made more use of muted tones in his tumbaos, all the while advancing the development of . The example on the right is one of Cruz's inventos ('musical inventions'), a band adaptation of the Congolese-based Afro-Cuban folkloric rhythm makuta. He played the pattern on three congas on the Paulito song "Llamada anónima." Listen: "Llamada Anónima" by Paulito F.G.
A very dramatic difference between the two genres is that sal
|
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969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
n Miami, Florida, where a large concentration of Cuban-Americans reside. This became possible due to members of some timba bands moving to Miami, such as Isaac Delgado, Manolín "El Médico de la Salsa", Dany Lozada (former singer and composer for Charanga Habanera), and Pepito Gómez (former singer in Pupy y Los Que Son Son) but eventually decided to relocate elsewhere (to Spain, Mexico, and New York).
Others include Carlos Manuel, El Pikete, Michel Calvo, Jorge Gomez and "Tiempo Libre" (who received Grammy nominations in 2005 for their album "Arroz con Mango" and in 2006 for their album "Lo que esperabas"), Los 10 de la Salsa, Chaka and his group "El Tumbao", and Tomasito Cruz and his Cuban Timba All Stars.
In Peru, timba is also prominent with no fewer than 30 bands dedicated to promote Cuban music, the most well known of which are Mayimbe and Team Cuba. Others include: Mangu, Camagüey, A Conquistar, Explosión Habana, N'Samble, La Novel, D'Farándula, Bembe, Son de Timba, Los Trabucos, Yambú and Yare.
Also, Lima is hometown for Cuban musicians such as Dantes Cardosa and Michel Maza (former lead singer for Charanga Habanera) and Caroband.
Stylistic aspects
Dance and culture
Harmony
Arranging
Rhythms
Timba rhythm sections differ from their salsa counterparts in many integral ways from the instruments themselves, to the individual patterns of each instrument, to the way those patterns are combined into gears, to the way the group navigates between those gears. The areas where salsa and timba are most similar are the tempo range and the part of the largest bell, played by the bongosero in salsa and, depending on the band, by either the bongosero, timbalero or drummer in timba.
The bell played by the timbalero in salsa is sometimes played the same way by the timbalero or drummer in timba, but in timba bands where one person plays both bell patterns, a different pattern, or a much looser series of improvised patterns, is used.
The time-honored standard conga marcha used universally in salsa is also often used in timba, but many other variations are also used and some congueros actually compose specific marchas for each song. Many of these timba conga marchas are twice or even four times the length of the standard conga marcha (or tumbao).
Tomás Cruz developed several adaptions of folkloric rhythms when working in Paulito FG's timba band of the 1990s. Cruz's creations offered clever counterpoints to the bass and chorus. Many of his tumbaos span two or even four claves in duration, something very rarely done previously. He also made more use of muted tones in his tumbaos, all the while advancing the development of . The example on the right is one of Cruz's inventos ('musical inventions'), a band adaptation of the Congolese-based Afro-Cuban folkloric rhythm makuta. He played the pattern on three congas on the Paulito song "Llamada anónima." Listen: "Llamada Anónima" by Paulito F.G.
A very dramatic difference between the two genres is that salsa bands don't use the kick drum, an essential element in all timba bands. Almost all timba bands have a trap drummer and those with a timbalero (e.g., Charanga Habanera) add a kick drum which he or she plays from a standing position.
The role of the bassist is also very different. Salsa bassists have standardized bombo-ponche bass tumbaos. This is sometimes used in timba, but much more often a clave-aligned tumbao is used, and it is often specific to the song in question, while the bombo-ponche tumbaos of salsa, by definition, always use the same rhythm from song to song. Most importantly, timba bassists stop and start their tumbaos, one of the defining aspects of timba gears. In salsa, the bass tumbao is omnipresent.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 13).
Clave schism
A significant aspect of the rhythmic structure of timba is the tendency towards ignoring or intentionally breaking the basic tenets of arranging the music in-clave. This had led to a schism within the world of salsa and related Latin dance music.
Many salsa pianists are alarmed when they first study timba and encounter measures that either contradict the clave or fail to mark it decisively. It is an understandable concern, because when dealing with tumbaos whose rhythm patterns last only one clave, that rhythm either marks the clave or it doesn't. However, when the rhythmic pattern lasts two or four claves, it gives the creative pianist the leeway to choose where, and how strongly, to mark the clave. If you mark the clave decisively every other measure, the listeners and dancers will learn to anticipate it.
As such, you can use clave polarity for artistic effect, creating tension with passages that leave the clave ambiguous or even contradict it, making the resolution to strong clave-alignment all the more satisfying when it comes" (Moore 2010: 41).
"Gears"
When a band develops a specific combination of piano, bass and percussion parts, and returns to it multiple times in multiple songs, we call this a "gear." It could be as simple as repeatedly using one groove for the cuerpos and another for the coros, or breaking down for the singer to talk to the crowd. Using this basic definition, we could say that all dance music has some sort of gear system, but the Cuban music of the 1990s took the concept to an unprecedented level of complexity and creativity. In fact, when answering the obligatory question "what's the difference between salsa and timba?", the most important part of the answer revolves around the subject of gears.
The Cuban bands of the 1990s came up with a much wider spectrum of gears than their predecessors, but more importantly, many of them devised visual, verbal and/or musical signals to enable them to apply the gear changes spontaneously in different ways for different performances of the same song, i.e., to improvise the form of the piece. For example, the singer or musical director might give a hand signal or cry out "bomba!", after which the bassist would begin to slide
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
sa bands don't use the kick drum, an essential element in all timba bands. Almost all timba bands have a trap drummer and those with a timbalero (e.g., Charanga Habanera) add a kick drum which he or she plays from a standing position.
The role of the bassist is also very different. Salsa bassists have standardized bombo-ponche bass tumbaos. This is sometimes used in timba, but much more often a clave-aligned tumbao is used, and it is often specific to the song in question, while the bombo-ponche tumbaos of salsa, by definition, always use the same rhythm from song to song. Most importantly, timba bassists stop and start their tumbaos, one of the defining aspects of timba gears. In salsa, the bass tumbao is omnipresent.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 13).
Clave schism
A significant aspect of the rhythmic structure of timba is the tendency towards ignoring or intentionally breaking the basic tenets of arranging the music in-clave. This had led to a schism within the world of salsa and related Latin dance music.
Many salsa pianists are alarmed when they first study timba and encounter measures that either contradict the clave or fail to mark it decisively. It is an understandable concern, because when dealing with tumbaos whose rhythm patterns last only one clave, that rhythm either marks the clave or it doesn't. However, when the rhythmic pattern lasts two or four claves, it gives the creative pianist the leeway to choose where, and how strongly, to mark the clave. If you mark the clave decisively every other measure, the listeners and dancers will learn to anticipate it.
As such, you can use clave polarity for artistic effect, creating tension with passages that leave the clave ambiguous or even contradict it, making the resolution to strong clave-alignment all the more satisfying when it comes" (Moore 2010: 41).
"Gears"
When a band develops a specific combination of piano, bass and percussion parts, and returns to it multiple times in multiple songs, we call this a "gear." It could be as simple as repeatedly using one groove for the cuerpos and another for the coros, or breaking down for the singer to talk to the crowd. Using this basic definition, we could say that all dance music has some sort of gear system, but the Cuban music of the 1990s took the concept to an unprecedented level of complexity and creativity. In fact, when answering the obligatory question "what's the difference between salsa and timba?", the most important part of the answer revolves around the subject of gears.
The Cuban bands of the 1990s came up with a much wider spectrum of gears than their predecessors, but more importantly, many of them devised visual, verbal and/or musical signals to enable them to apply the gear changes spontaneously in different ways for different performances of the same song, i.e., to improvise the form of the piece. For example, the singer or musical director might give a hand signal or cry out "bomba!", after which the bassist would begin to slide his or her right hand down the low string of the bass in a distinctive pattern, with the percussionists simultaneously changing their patterns to a pre-determined combination that works with the bass to create the tembleque-inducing bomba groove. These "gear changes" can be written into arrangements or spontaneously invoked in live performance by hand or vocal signals.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 75)
Breakdowns
Breakdown gears set timba apart from other salsa. The following example is Calixto Oviedo's funky drumset pattern for a type of high-energy breakdown known as presión. Watch: Calixto Oviedo play presión breakdown drumset pattern
Compared to salsa
Though quite similar to salsa on the surface of things due to origins from son heritage, timba has certain qualities of its own which distinguish it from salsa, similar to the way American R&B is distinguished from soul. In general, timba is considered to be a highly aggressive type of music, with rhythm and "swing" taking precedence over melody and lyricism. Associated with timba is a radically sexual and provocative dance style known as despelote (literally meaning chaos or frenzy) that consists of rapid gyrations of the body and pelvis, thrusting and trembling motions, bending over and generating harmonic oscillations of the gluteous maximus. Those involved in the performance and popularization of timba crafted a culture of black, strong, masculine pride, and a narrative of male hypersexulaity to go with timba's so-called "masculine" sound. In a socialist society where value and identity center on labor and political citizenship, black males were representing themselves not as forces of production but of pleasure. Timba is musically complex, highly danceable, and reflects the problems and contradictions of contemporary Cuban society because it expresses a repetitive beat that relates to the repetitive day-to-day life the Cubans endured during the early 1990s. It is a dynamic evolution of salsa, full of improvisation and Afro Cuban heritage, based on son, Rumba and mambo, taking inspiration from Latin jazz, and is highly percussive with complex sections. Very little "traditional" salsa existed (or exists) in Cuba, the most influential foreign 'salsero' being Venezuelan Oscar D'León, who is one of the few salsa artists to have performed in Cuba. Timba musicians thus rightly claim a different musical heritage from salsa musicians.
At its most basic, timba is more flexible and innovative than salsa, and includes a more diverse range of styles, all of which could be defined as timba. The limits of what is timba and what is not are less rigid when compared to salsa, as innovation and improvisation are key concepts in Timba music. According to Juan Formell, director of Los Van Van, timba is not a form of traditional son, but something new. Timba incorporates heavy percussion and rhythms which originally came from the barrios of Cuba.
Timba incorporates many elements of Afro-Cuban culture and music. Thi
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
his or her right hand down the low string of the bass in a distinctive pattern, with the percussionists simultaneously changing their patterns to a pre-determined combination that works with the bass to create the tembleque-inducing bomba groove. These "gear changes" can be written into arrangements or spontaneously invoked in live performance by hand or vocal signals.—Moore (2010: v. 5: 75)
Breakdowns
Breakdown gears set timba apart from other salsa. The following example is Calixto Oviedo's funky drumset pattern for a type of high-energy breakdown known as presión. Watch: Calixto Oviedo play presión breakdown drumset pattern
Compared to salsa
Though quite similar to salsa on the surface of things due to origins from son heritage, timba has certain qualities of its own which distinguish it from salsa, similar to the way American R&B is distinguished from soul. In general, timba is considered to be a highly aggressive type of music, with rhythm and "swing" taking precedence over melody and lyricism. Associated with timba is a radically sexual and provocative dance style known as despelote (literally meaning chaos or frenzy) that consists of rapid gyrations of the body and pelvis, thrusting and trembling motions, bending over and generating harmonic oscillations of the gluteous maximus. Those involved in the performance and popularization of timba crafted a culture of black, strong, masculine pride, and a narrative of male hypersexulaity to go with timba's so-called "masculine" sound. In a socialist society where value and identity center on labor and political citizenship, black males were representing themselves not as forces of production but of pleasure. Timba is musically complex, highly danceable, and reflects the problems and contradictions of contemporary Cuban society because it expresses a repetitive beat that relates to the repetitive day-to-day life the Cubans endured during the early 1990s. It is a dynamic evolution of salsa, full of improvisation and Afro Cuban heritage, based on son, Rumba and mambo, taking inspiration from Latin jazz, and is highly percussive with complex sections. Very little "traditional" salsa existed (or exists) in Cuba, the most influential foreign 'salsero' being Venezuelan Oscar D'León, who is one of the few salsa artists to have performed in Cuba. Timba musicians thus rightly claim a different musical heritage from salsa musicians.
At its most basic, timba is more flexible and innovative than salsa, and includes a more diverse range of styles, all of which could be defined as timba. The limits of what is timba and what is not are less rigid when compared to salsa, as innovation and improvisation are key concepts in Timba music. According to Juan Formell, director of Los Van Van, timba is not a form of traditional son, but something new. Timba incorporates heavy percussion and rhythms which originally came from the barrios of Cuba.
Timba incorporates many elements of Afro-Cuban culture and music. This includes various Afro Cuban rhythms (on all instruments), expressions or parts of lyrics in 'Lucumí' (Cuban Yoruba, which were before used mostly in a religious context) and references to Afro-Cuban religion, the imperative for improvisation and interaction with audiences during concerts, story-telling in the lyrics, the quoting of melodies, rhythms and/or lyrics from other sources and sustained sections of coro-pregon (call and response) interaction in songs. Contrary to (early) salsa, timba makes no claim to social or political messages, partly because of the political circumstances in Cuba.
More specifically, timba differs from salsa in orchestration and arrangement. Some timba artists readily concede that they have occasionally taken inspiration from musical genres coming outside of Cuba. Thus, bands like La Charanga Habanera or Bamboleo often have horns or other instruments playing a few melodic notes from tunes by Earth, Wind and Fire, Kool and the Gang or other funk bands. In terms of instrumentation, the most important innovation has been the permanent incorporation of a drum kit and a synthesiser. Many timba bands have otherwise kept the traditional charanga ensemble of the 1940s, which includes double bass, conga, cowbell, clave, piano, violins, flute and in timba an expanded horn section that (in addition to the traditional trumpets and trombones) may include saxophones. However, many innovations were made in the style of playing and the arrangements, especially on the bass (sometimes taking inspiration from non Cuban genres of music), the piano (with elements of baroque music such as Bach), the horns (complex arrangements known as "champolas"), and the use of the clave (where 2-3 son clave is the standard in salsa music, timba often leans towards 2-3 rumba clave, 3:2 Son clave and 3:2 Rumba clave). Also different from salsa is the frequent shift from major to minor keys (and vice versa), the highly complex rhythmic arrangements (often based on santería or abakuá rhythms), the shifts in speed and the large number of orchestrated breaks, or "bloques".
Also, owing to its many Afro Cuban origins (and, of course, to traditional Cuban music such as Son), Timba music is highly syncopated.
Status
Though timba is considered to be a form of popular music, the technical mastery of timba is only possible through highly trained musicians, who have solid theoretical backgrounds in classical music, jazz, traditional Cuban music, as well as other international genres. This is made possible through the high standards of government-run music schools in Cuba, as well as the strong competition between musicians.
Government policy favours artistic excellence and Cuban music is regarded as a source of revenue and a legitimate way to attract tourism. However, the island's most popular dance bands have been virtually ignored by Latino radio in the US and some parts of Cuba, and are absent from the charts. However, pieces of Cuban sound are beginning to
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
s includes various Afro Cuban rhythms (on all instruments), expressions or parts of lyrics in 'Lucumí' (Cuban Yoruba, which were before used mostly in a religious context) and references to Afro-Cuban religion, the imperative for improvisation and interaction with audiences during concerts, story-telling in the lyrics, the quoting of melodies, rhythms and/or lyrics from other sources and sustained sections of coro-pregon (call and response) interaction in songs. Contrary to (early) salsa, timba makes no claim to social or political messages, partly because of the political circumstances in Cuba.
More specifically, timba differs from salsa in orchestration and arrangement. Some timba artists readily concede that they have occasionally taken inspiration from musical genres coming outside of Cuba. Thus, bands like La Charanga Habanera or Bamboleo often have horns or other instruments playing a few melodic notes from tunes by Earth, Wind and Fire, Kool and the Gang or other funk bands. In terms of instrumentation, the most important innovation has been the permanent incorporation of a drum kit and a synthesiser. Many timba bands have otherwise kept the traditional charanga ensemble of the 1940s, which includes double bass, conga, cowbell, clave, piano, violins, flute and in timba an expanded horn section that (in addition to the traditional trumpets and trombones) may include saxophones. However, many innovations were made in the style of playing and the arrangements, especially on the bass (sometimes taking inspiration from non Cuban genres of music), the piano (with elements of baroque music such as Bach), the horns (complex arrangements known as "champolas"), and the use of the clave (where 2-3 son clave is the standard in salsa music, timba often leans towards 2-3 rumba clave, 3:2 Son clave and 3:2 Rumba clave). Also different from salsa is the frequent shift from major to minor keys (and vice versa), the highly complex rhythmic arrangements (often based on santería or abakuá rhythms), the shifts in speed and the large number of orchestrated breaks, or "bloques".
Also, owing to its many Afro Cuban origins (and, of course, to traditional Cuban music such as Son), Timba music is highly syncopated.
Status
Though timba is considered to be a form of popular music, the technical mastery of timba is only possible through highly trained musicians, who have solid theoretical backgrounds in classical music, jazz, traditional Cuban music, as well as other international genres. This is made possible through the high standards of government-run music schools in Cuba, as well as the strong competition between musicians.
Government policy favours artistic excellence and Cuban music is regarded as a source of revenue and a legitimate way to attract tourism. However, the island's most popular dance bands have been virtually ignored by Latino radio in the US and some parts of Cuba, and are absent from the charts. However, pieces of Cuban sound are beginning to reach large audiences in the USA through musical recordings produced by popular musicians, such as Willy Chirino and Qbadisc, from New York City, Miami, and Puerto Rico who currently incorporate timba into their songs. New York and Puerto Rican musicians have further blended the double-hit bass drum in the breakdown in a more sophisticated way which does not exist in Cuba yet. Because of the available resources outside of Cuba, it is easier for musicians outside of the island to create music that has been heavily influenced by the Cubans. Meaning, it is easier for foreigners to imitate, create, and get their music out to the public more quickly because of the available technology.
Gonzalo Grau, La Timba Loca band leader, hopes timba will gain popularity in the States, but he realizes that only small crowds will come to shows at first. Because of the politics surrounding Cuba, the music has not had a chance to gain exposure in the States and has not become as commercialized as traditional salsa from other Latin countries. Nevertheless, many Cuban musicians seek to work abroad, and a significant number of musicians now work in exile, both in the United States and in Europe (and to a lesser extent in Latin America), leading to a new wave of cross-breeding between the timba and salsa. While timba has gone past its peak in recent years, all major groups are still actively recording and performing, and major labels—especially in Europe—have started taking an interest in timba.
Because timba is highly aggressive and a challenge to dance to some Cuban bands in search of a broader audience have intentionally made music that a majority of Latinos will find easy to dance to, mixing Latino staples such as salsa, merengue, and romantic ballads into the Cuban beat. By 1990, several bands had incorporated elements of funk and hip-hop into their arrangements, and expanded upon the instrumentation of the traditional conjunto with American drum set, saxophones and a two-keyboard format. Along with the Cuban congas and timbales, the drum set provided powerful funk and rock beats that added more punch to the rhythm section, and the bass players began to incorporate the playing techniques associated with funk, slapping, and pulling the strings in a percussive way. The combination of the trumpets and the saxes gave the horn section a more jazzed sound, and the harmony began to evolve on a more contemporary level.
Timba has start to become popular in the worldwide salsa scene today as commercial timba music selections are selectively accepted. However many salsa dancers consider it difficult to dance to, due to rapid rhythm and differential arrangements than traditional salsa and beats too strong to their ears, compounded by the strong Afro-Cubans rhythm heritage and the inability of many North American salsa dancers to listen to actual tempos. Nevertheless, it has found a niche among a growing number of fans and has been influential amongst Cuban-American and
|
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] |
969960
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timba
|
Timba
|
reach large audiences in the USA through musical recordings produced by popular musicians, such as Willy Chirino and Qbadisc, from New York City, Miami, and Puerto Rico who currently incorporate timba into their songs. New York and Puerto Rican musicians have further blended the double-hit bass drum in the breakdown in a more sophisticated way which does not exist in Cuba yet. Because of the available resources outside of Cuba, it is easier for musicians outside of the island to create music that has been heavily influenced by the Cubans. Meaning, it is easier for foreigners to imitate, create, and get their music out to the public more quickly because of the available technology.
Gonzalo Grau, La Timba Loca band leader, hopes timba will gain popularity in the States, but he realizes that only small crowds will come to shows at first. Because of the politics surrounding Cuba, the music has not had a chance to gain exposure in the States and has not become as commercialized as traditional salsa from other Latin countries. Nevertheless, many Cuban musicians seek to work abroad, and a significant number of musicians now work in exile, both in the United States and in Europe (and to a lesser extent in Latin America), leading to a new wave of cross-breeding between the timba and salsa. While timba has gone past its peak in recent years, all major groups are still actively recording and performing, and major labels—especially in Europe—have started taking an interest in timba.
Because timba is highly aggressive and a challenge to dance to some Cuban bands in search of a broader audience have intentionally made music that a majority of Latinos will find easy to dance to, mixing Latino staples such as salsa, merengue, and romantic ballads into the Cuban beat. By 1990, several bands had incorporated elements of funk and hip-hop into their arrangements, and expanded upon the instrumentation of the traditional conjunto with American drum set, saxophones and a two-keyboard format. Along with the Cuban congas and timbales, the drum set provided powerful funk and rock beats that added more punch to the rhythm section, and the bass players began to incorporate the playing techniques associated with funk, slapping, and pulling the strings in a percussive way. The combination of the trumpets and the saxes gave the horn section a more jazzed sound, and the harmony began to evolve on a more contemporary level.
Timba has start to become popular in the worldwide salsa scene today as commercial timba music selections are selectively accepted. However many salsa dancers consider it difficult to dance to, due to rapid rhythm and differential arrangements than traditional salsa and beats too strong to their ears, compounded by the strong Afro-Cubans rhythm heritage and the inability of many North American salsa dancers to listen to actual tempos. Nevertheless, it has found a niche among a growing number of fans and has been influential amongst Cuban-American and European salsa musicians. From the salsa dancer's perspective, timba (due to its rhythmically complex nature) is very hard to dance unless traditional Cuban salsa (also known as casino) is mastered and may require many years of practice. In the same way that musicians amalgamate salsa with funk, pop, jazz, rock & roll and even tango to create timba, dancing to timba reflects the rhythms/genre incorporated in the composition being danced to. Timba as a dance allows incorporation of moves seen in Afro-Cuban folklore, funk, pop, rock & roll etc., and the creation of new moves under the framework of Cuban casino.
See also
Tumbao
References
Alén Rodríguez, O. (1998) From Afrocuban music to Salsa, Piranha Records, Berlin
Calabash Music. Bakuleye. "National Geographic World Music" n.d. received 4 March 2010.
Cantor, Judy. Cuban Music Goes Commercial. "Billboard" 20 Feb. 1999: LM-2(1).
Davis, Hannah. La Timba Loca Brings New Sound to Cuban Salsa Music. Philadelphia Inquirer 28 Feb. 2005.
Delgado, A. (1999) "The Death of Salsa"
Duany, J. (1996) "Rethinking the Popular: Recent Essays on Caribbean Music and Identity" in Latin American Music Review, vol. 17(2):176-192
Ferguson, R. J. (2003) "The Transnational Politics of Cuban Music and Cuban Culture" in The Culture Mandala, vol. 6(1)
Hernández-Reguant, Ariana. Blackness with a Cuban Beat. "NACLA Report on the Americas" 38.2 (2004):31-36.
Hernández-Reguant, Ariana (2006) Havana's Timba. A macho sound for black sex. In Deborah Thomas and Kamari Clarke, eds. Globalization and Race. Transformations in the cultural production of blackness. Duke University Press.
Llewellyn, Howell. Timba Burns In Cuba. "Billboard" 111.5 (1999):1.
López, Cano Rubén. 2005. "Del Barrio a la academia. Introducción al dossier Timba Cubana". TRANS- Transcultural Music Review 9.
López, Cano Rubén. 2006. "Asómate por debajo de la pista: timba cubana, estrategias músico-sociales y construcción de géneros en la música popular". Actas del VII Congreso de IASPM-AL. Música popular, escena y cuerpo en la América Latina:prácticas presentes y pasadas . La Habana, Cuba, 20 al 25 de junio de 2006.
López, Cano Rubén. 2007. "El chico duro de La Habana. Agresividad, desafío y cinismo en la Timba cubana". Latin Amertican Music Review 28:1, pp. 24–67.
Mauleon, Rebeca. Timba Music. "National Geographic World Music" n.d. received 4 March 2010.* Moore, Kevin (2010). Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Piano Revolution. v. 1. The Roots of Piano Tumbao.
Moore, Kevin (2010). Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Piano Revolution. v. 2. Early Cuban Tumbaos: 1940–1959. Moore, Kevin (2010). Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Piano Revolution. v. 3. Cuban Piano Tumbaos: 1960–1979. Moore, Kevin (2010). Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Piano Revolution. v. 4. Cuban Piano Tumbaos: 1979–1989. Moore, Kevin (2010). Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Piano Revolution. v. 5. Introduction to Timba.
Moore, Kevin (2010). Beyond Salsa Piano; The C
|
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969971
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Too%20Late%20the%20Hero%20%28film%29
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Too Late the Hero (film)
|
Too Late the Hero is a 1970 American war film directed by Robert Aldrich and starring Michael Caine, Cliff Robertson, Ian Bannen and Harry Andrews.
Plot
In the 1942 Pacific War theater of World War II, Lieutenant Sam Lawson, USN, is a Japanese-language interpreter who — so far — has avoided combat. His commanding officer, Captain John G. Nolan, unexpectedly cancels his leave and informs Lawson that he is to be assigned to a British infantry commando unit in the New Hebrides Islands for a combat mission.
The British base is in the middle of a large open field, several hundred yards from the edge of the jungle; on the other side of the jungle is a Japanese observation and communications post. Shortly after Lawson's arrival at the base, a patrol of British soldiers sprint out of the jungle and across the open field, pursued by the Japanese. The base commander, Col. Thompson, instructs his men to keep well back, out of enemy range; they watch as the patrol are cut down by Japanese rifle fire.
Lawson's commando group is instructed to destroy the Japanese radio transmitter to prevent them from sounding the alarm about an American naval convoy which is scheduled to appear on the horizon in three days. The post's radio operator transmits an "all's well" signal every night at midnight; it will be Lawson's job to transmit a fake signal (in Japanese) to buy the Allies another 24 hours.
The commando group is led by Captain Hornsby, an upper class officer with a history of foolhardiness. The other members of the squad are draftees from Singapore whose enthusiasm for fighting leaves something to be desired: Pvt. Tosh Hearne, a cynical Cockney who is also the squad's medic; Pvt. Jock Thornton, a lean Scot whom Lawson at first considers slightly cracked for skipping on patrol and singing the "Teddy Bears' Picnic", Pvt. Campbell, a fat Glaswegian; grey-haired Sergeant Johnstone; Signalman Scott the radio operator; Pvt. Griffiths, Pvt. Rogers, Pvt. Currie, Pvt. Connolly, Cpl. McLean, and Pvt. Riddle.
By the time the squad reaches the Japanese post, Riddle, Connolly, and Currie are dead from a botched ambush — which, Hearne mutters to Lawson, was entirely due to Hornsby's incompetence: they were positioned on both sides of the trail, and the dead men seem to have been the victims of friendly fire. When Johnstone is wounded in another encounter, Hornsby leaves him behind; shortly thereafter, Johnstone is discovered by the Japanese and his throat slit.
After Scott drops and breaks the radio Lawson was to use, Hornsby decides to use the Japanese radio. Lawson flatly refuses to take part in any such scheme, giving the excuse that Hornsby is disobeying their orders with this extemporization. Nevertheless, Hornsby walks boldly into the Japanese camp and enters the radio hut without being spotted; he knocks out the radio operator and motions to Lawson and Scott. Scott goes to the hut, but despite Hearne's urgings, Lawson refuses to go. The Japanese radio operator comes to, and in the ensuing fracas, both Scott and Hornsby are killed.
Lawson is now the ranking officer, with only Hearne, Campbell, Jock, Griffiths, and McLean left alive — and Jock has been wounded in the debacle. Japanese Major Yamaguchi is determined to stop them from reporting the existence of the secret Japanese airfield and planes they have discovered. Through loudspeakers in the trees, Yamaguchi exhorts the men to give themselves up. Lawson and Hearne agree that Yamaguchi is not to be trusted, but Campbell is in favour of surrender, and he works at Griffiths as Jock weakens. Finally, while Lawson and Hearne are asleep, Campbell tries to sneak off into the jungle; but Jock spots him and asks where he is going. Campbell strangles Jock, wakes Griffiths and McLean, and the three of them run off.
Yamaguchi attempts to use the lives of Griffiths and McLean as bargaining chips. (Campbell, on the other hand, is killed in gruesome fashion after the Japanese discover he has a ring taken from the finger of one of the officers the patrol ambushed.) As Lawson and Hearne reach the edge of the open field adjacent to the British base, Yamaguchi announces that they have three minutes to surrender; Japanese soldiers have the field covered with rifles and machine guns. Hearne suggests that they give Yamaguchi a taste of his own medicine. They double back and shoot him. They then sprint out across the field. Despite cover fire from the base, first one, then the other is hit.
One of them rises and staggers to safety. It is Hearne. When Colonel Thompson asks who the other man was, Hearne replies, "A hero. He killed fifteen Japs single-handed — thirty, if you like."
Cast
Michael Caine as Private Tosh Hearne
Cliff Robertson as Lieutenant Sam Lawson
Ian Bannen as Private Jock Thornton
Harry Andrews as Colonel Thompson
Ronald Fraser as Private Campbell
Denholm Elliott as Captain Hornsby
Lance Percival as Corporal McLean
Percy Herbert as Sergeant Johnstone
Patrick Jordan as Sergeant Major
Sam Kydd as Colour-Sergeant
William Beckley as Private Currie
Martin Horsey as Private Griffiths
Harvey Jason as Signalman Scott
Don Knight as Private Connolly
Roger Newman as Private Riddle
Michael Parsons as Private Rafferty (as Michael J. Parson)
Sean MacDuff as Private Rogers
Frank Webb as Ensign
Henry Fonda as Captain John G. Nolan
Ken Takakura as Major Yamaguchi
Production
Development
Aldrich later said he first wrote the story in 1959 with Robert Sherman. That year, when he was making films in Europe, he said he was going to scout locations in Burma and wanted Laurence Olivier and Trevor Howard to play the leads.
In 1963 Aldrich was going to make a $14 million slate of eight feature films and one TV series for his production company, The Associates and Aldrich Company, using the success of Whatever Happened to Baby Jane?, Sodom and Gomorrah and 4 For Texas to raise finance. The film projects were Cross of Iron by Lukas Heller, Hush...Hush, Sweet C
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Too%20Late%20the%20Hero%20%28film%29
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Too Late the Hero (film)
|
mes to, and in the ensuing fracas, both Scott and Hornsby are killed.
Lawson is now the ranking officer, with only Hearne, Campbell, Jock, Griffiths, and McLean left alive — and Jock has been wounded in the debacle. Japanese Major Yamaguchi is determined to stop them from reporting the existence of the secret Japanese airfield and planes they have discovered. Through loudspeakers in the trees, Yamaguchi exhorts the men to give themselves up. Lawson and Hearne agree that Yamaguchi is not to be trusted, but Campbell is in favour of surrender, and he works at Griffiths as Jock weakens. Finally, while Lawson and Hearne are asleep, Campbell tries to sneak off into the jungle; but Jock spots him and asks where he is going. Campbell strangles Jock, wakes Griffiths and McLean, and the three of them run off.
Yamaguchi attempts to use the lives of Griffiths and McLean as bargaining chips. (Campbell, on the other hand, is killed in gruesome fashion after the Japanese discover he has a ring taken from the finger of one of the officers the patrol ambushed.) As Lawson and Hearne reach the edge of the open field adjacent to the British base, Yamaguchi announces that they have three minutes to surrender; Japanese soldiers have the field covered with rifles and machine guns. Hearne suggests that they give Yamaguchi a taste of his own medicine. They double back and shoot him. They then sprint out across the field. Despite cover fire from the base, first one, then the other is hit.
One of them rises and staggers to safety. It is Hearne. When Colonel Thompson asks who the other man was, Hearne replies, "A hero. He killed fifteen Japs single-handed — thirty, if you like."
Cast
Michael Caine as Private Tosh Hearne
Cliff Robertson as Lieutenant Sam Lawson
Ian Bannen as Private Jock Thornton
Harry Andrews as Colonel Thompson
Ronald Fraser as Private Campbell
Denholm Elliott as Captain Hornsby
Lance Percival as Corporal McLean
Percy Herbert as Sergeant Johnstone
Patrick Jordan as Sergeant Major
Sam Kydd as Colour-Sergeant
William Beckley as Private Currie
Martin Horsey as Private Griffiths
Harvey Jason as Signalman Scott
Don Knight as Private Connolly
Roger Newman as Private Riddle
Michael Parsons as Private Rafferty (as Michael J. Parson)
Sean MacDuff as Private Rogers
Frank Webb as Ensign
Henry Fonda as Captain John G. Nolan
Ken Takakura as Major Yamaguchi
Production
Development
Aldrich later said he first wrote the story in 1959 with Robert Sherman. That year, when he was making films in Europe, he said he was going to scout locations in Burma and wanted Laurence Olivier and Trevor Howard to play the leads.
In 1963 Aldrich was going to make a $14 million slate of eight feature films and one TV series for his production company, The Associates and Aldrich Company, using the success of Whatever Happened to Baby Jane?, Sodom and Gomorrah and 4 For Texas to raise finance. The film projects were Cross of Iron by Lukas Heller, Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte, The Tsar's Bride by Robert Sherman, Brouhaha by George Tabori, The Legend of Lylah Clare, Paper Eagle, There Really was a Gold Mine (a sequel to Vera Cruz), and Genghis Khan's Bicycle with the TV series being The Man by Heller. Screenplays had also been completed on Now We Know by John O'Hara and Halstead Welles, Vengeance is Mine, Potluck for Pomeroy and Too Late the Hero by Robert Sherman.
Aldrich later said he did the original draft then had it rewritten by Lukas Heller, who "made it a much better script." However the film was not made until after Aldrich had a big success with The Dirty Dozen.
Robert Aldrich recalled that the production company ABC Films, wanted another version of his The Dirty Dozen and that Too Late the Hero, a property that could use some of the same elements, had been languishing in studio drawers for over a decade. The idea of the film came from an unpublished novel called Don't Die Mad by Robert Sherman who had worked on several films with Aldrich.
Aldrich later reflected, "When you've had a big, big success, people who should know better lose their perspective about your infallibility. Right away it's "Let's make another one!" Let's go back and buy the first novel of some guy who, ten novels later, wrote a hit. That's ludicrous. You may have better projects, but you can't sell the better projects, you really can't." Aldrich said the only other "Dirty Dozen" he had in his drawer was Too Late the Hero. MGM wanted to make it but "they wanted a budget of nine million seven to make it, which was too high." He ended up selling The Legend of Lylah Clare to MGM and setting up Hero at ABC where it was made for $6 million.
In October 1967 Aldrich announced he would make the film as part of a four-picture deal he had with Palomar ABC, the others being The Killing of Sister George, Whatever Happened to Aunt Alice? and The Greatest Mother of Them All. In November Michael Caine signed to star.
In October 1968 Cliff Robertson signed to co-star. Aldrich said he wanted "anyone but Cliff Robertson" for the lead role but he was overruled by the studio.
Denholm Elliott joined the cast shortly after Robertson.
Historical accuracy
In actuality, the Japanese never were in the New Hebrides in World War II; the American forces arrived in May 1942.
The attitudes depicted in the World War II film—made during the Vietnam War era—reflected the 1960s, with one character talking about "long haired conscientious objectors". The poster advertising the film showed a fallen soldier dressed in a 1960s American uniform and holding an M16 rifle.
Shooting
Filming started in February 1969.
The bulk of the film was made on Boracay Island in the Philippines by the same crew and using many of the same sets as Jack Starrett's The Losers. The opening and closing segments were filmed outside the Subic Bay Naval Base using sailors and American civilians as extras.
During filming, Robertson found out he won the Best Actor Oscar for Charly. He h
|
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] |
969971
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Too%20Late%20the%20Hero%20%28film%29
|
Too Late the Hero (film)
|
harlotte, The Tsar's Bride by Robert Sherman, Brouhaha by George Tabori, The Legend of Lylah Clare, Paper Eagle, There Really was a Gold Mine (a sequel to Vera Cruz), and Genghis Khan's Bicycle with the TV series being The Man by Heller. Screenplays had also been completed on Now We Know by John O'Hara and Halstead Welles, Vengeance is Mine, Potluck for Pomeroy and Too Late the Hero by Robert Sherman.
Aldrich later said he did the original draft then had it rewritten by Lukas Heller, who "made it a much better script." However the film was not made until after Aldrich had a big success with The Dirty Dozen.
Robert Aldrich recalled that the production company ABC Films, wanted another version of his The Dirty Dozen and that Too Late the Hero, a property that could use some of the same elements, had been languishing in studio drawers for over a decade. The idea of the film came from an unpublished novel called Don't Die Mad by Robert Sherman who had worked on several films with Aldrich.
Aldrich later reflected, "When you've had a big, big success, people who should know better lose their perspective about your infallibility. Right away it's "Let's make another one!" Let's go back and buy the first novel of some guy who, ten novels later, wrote a hit. That's ludicrous. You may have better projects, but you can't sell the better projects, you really can't." Aldrich said the only other "Dirty Dozen" he had in his drawer was Too Late the Hero. MGM wanted to make it but "they wanted a budget of nine million seven to make it, which was too high." He ended up selling The Legend of Lylah Clare to MGM and setting up Hero at ABC where it was made for $6 million.
In October 1967 Aldrich announced he would make the film as part of a four-picture deal he had with Palomar ABC, the others being The Killing of Sister George, Whatever Happened to Aunt Alice? and The Greatest Mother of Them All. In November Michael Caine signed to star.
In October 1968 Cliff Robertson signed to co-star. Aldrich said he wanted "anyone but Cliff Robertson" for the lead role but he was overruled by the studio.
Denholm Elliott joined the cast shortly after Robertson.
Historical accuracy
In actuality, the Japanese never were in the New Hebrides in World War II; the American forces arrived in May 1942.
The attitudes depicted in the World War II film—made during the Vietnam War era—reflected the 1960s, with one character talking about "long haired conscientious objectors". The poster advertising the film showed a fallen soldier dressed in a 1960s American uniform and holding an M16 rifle.
Shooting
Filming started in February 1969.
The bulk of the film was made on Boracay Island in the Philippines by the same crew and using many of the same sets as Jack Starrett's The Losers. The opening and closing segments were filmed outside the Subic Bay Naval Base using sailors and American civilians as extras.
During filming, Robertson found out he won the Best Actor Oscar for Charly. He had not insisted contractually that he could return for the Oscar ceremony so Frank Sinatra accepted it for him. "There was no flap", he said later. "If the absence was anybody's fault it was my own.": He complained a year later, that it only would have taken two days out of the production schedule and that he had offered to pay production costs but was refused as "a matter of ego".
Aldrich was requested to film two separate endings for the American and British audiences, one with Robertson surviving.
Filming finished by April 1969. Relations between Aldrich and Robertson deteriorated so much that Aldrich reportedly left the film early leaving Oscar Rudolph to finish it. However, in June 1969 Aldrich attended a presentation at Aldrich's studios in Los Angeles where a plaque in Robertson's name was unveiled.
Aldrich later said if Robertson's character had been played "as I wanted it" his character "would have won, even though he is killed and Michael Caine lives."
Shortly after filming Robertson optioned the rights to Death of a Legend, the story of Blanche Walker Jurika, executed for fighting the Japanese in World War II. He optioned them from Michael Parsons, who was in the cast. Parsons was arrested for possession of hashish in May 1969.
Reception
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 62%, based on 13 retrospectively collected reviews with an average rating of 6/10.
Roger Greenspun of The New York Times wrote, "Although committed to the notion that war is an inclusive system of betrayals, the film subverts that notion and settles instead for some fashionable ironies and remarkably conventional jungle war displays." Arthur D. Murphy of Variety called it "an okay World War II melodrama ... the net result is not very much at all, except for a pervading load of bland competence, under the overall supervision of auteur Aldrich." Gene Siskel gave the film one star out of four and wrote, "The essence of an action film is action, and that's precisely what's missing in Robert Aldrich's 'Too Late the Hero.' Oddly enough, Aldrich, who directed 'The Dirty Dozen,' substitutes boredom in the form of an annoyingly long prolog, repititious scenes, and combat in a closed space." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called it "a war movie at its most routine. Indeed, it's depressing to consider how much effort and expense were expended with so little to show for it."
Box office
The film earned rentals of $615,000 in North America and $975,000 in other countries (it had admissions of 294,232 in France). The film was one of the most popular movies in 1971 at the British box office.
After all costs were deducted, the film made an overall loss of $6,765,000, making it one of the biggest money losers in the history of ABC Films.
Aldrich said in 1972 that because the film "was less than successful, so now all our properties are scrutinized at a whole other level. It can get terribly sad, but it's true t
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970009
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20%28play%29
|
Helen (play)
|
Helen (, Helenē) is a drama by Euripides about Helen, first produced in 412 BC for the Dionysia in a trilogy that also contained Euripides' lost Andromeda. The play has much in common with Iphigenia in Tauris, which is believed to have been performed around the same time period.
Historical frame
Helen was written soon after the Sicilian Expedition, in which Athens had suffered a massive defeat. Concurrently, the sophists – a movement of teachers who incorporated philosophy and rhetoric into their occupation – were beginning to question traditional values and religious beliefs. Within the play's framework, Euripides starkly condemns war, deeming it to be the root of all evil.
Background
About thirty years before this play, Herodotus argued in his Histories that Helen had never in fact arrived at Troy, but was in Egypt during the entire Trojan War. The Archaic lyric poet Stesichorus had made the same assertion in his "Palinode" (itself a correction to an earlier poem corroborating the traditional characterization that made Helen out to be a woman of ill repute). The play Helen tells a variant of this story, beginning under the premise that rather than running off to Troy with Paris, Helen was actually whisked away to Egypt by the gods. The Helen who escaped with Paris, betraying her husband and her country and initiating the ten-year conflict, was actually an eidolon, a phantom look-alike. After Paris was promised the most beautiful woman in the world by Aphrodite and he judged her fairer than her fellow goddesses Athena and Hera, Hera ordered Hermes to replace Helen, Paris' assumed prize, with a fake. Thus, the real Helen has been languishing in Egypt for years, while the Greeks and Trojans alike curse her for her supposed infidelity.
In Egypt, king Proteus, who had protected Helen, has died. His son Theoclymenus, the new king with a penchant for killing Greeks, intends to marry Helen, who after all these years remains loyal to her husband Menelaus.
Plot
Helen receives word from the exiled Greek Teucer that Menelaus never returned to Greece from Troy, and is presumed dead, putting her in the perilous position of being available for Theoclymenus to marry, and she consults the prophetess Theonoe, sister to Theoclymenus, to find out Menelaus' fate.
Her fears are allayed when a stranger arrives in Egypt and turns out to be Menelaus himself, and the long-separated couple recognize each other. At first, Menelaus does not believe that she is the real Helen, since he has hidden the Helen he won in Troy in a cave. However, the woman he was shipwrecked with was in reality, only a mere phantom of the real Helen. Before the Trojan war even began, a judgement took place, one that Paris was involved in. He gave the Goddess Aphrodite the award of the fairest since she bribed him with Helen as a bride. To take their revenge on Paris, the remaining goddesses, Athena and Hera, replaced the real Helen with a phantom. However, Menelaus did not know better. But luckily one of his sailors steps in to inform him that the false Helen has disappeared into thin air.
The couple still must figure out how to escape from Egypt, but the rumor that Menelaus has died is still in circulation. Thus, Helen tells Theoclymenus that the stranger who came ashore was a messenger there to tell her that her husband was truly dead. She informs the king that she may marry him as soon as she has performed a ritual burial at sea, thus freeing her symbolically from her first wedding vows. The king agrees to this, and Helen and Menelaus use this opportunity to escape on the boat given to them for the ceremony.
Theoclymenus is furious when he learns of the trick and nearly murders his sister Theonoe for not telling him that Menelaus is still alive. However, he is prevented by the miraculous intervention of the demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces, brothers of Helen and the sons of Zeus and Leda.
Themes
Virtue and Oaths: in the Helen, Euripides emphasizes the importance of virtue and oaths. Awaiting the return of her husband Menelaus for 17 years — the ten of the Trojan War and another seven for the search — Helen remains faithful to Menelaus and the promises she has made him: Helen made two oaths, one to the Spartan river Eurotas and another on the head of Menelaus himself as sanctifying object. Menelaus also swears fidelity to Helen: so seriously do husband and wife take their vows that they agree to commit suicide and never marry another if their plans fail. Such importance to oath-keeping is consonant with general practice during the time period (Torrance, 2009). With these oaths, Helen and Menelaus declare their love for each other and their desire to live only with the other. These oaths prove their devotion and exemplify the importance of oaths. Given the play’s humor and Euripides’ general challenging of norms and values, it remains uncertain what our playwright’s own views are.
Identity and Reputation: Throughout all the different permutations of the story of Helen and the Trojan War, what makes the Trojan war distinctive is the fact that it is always caused, somehow, by Helen as the supreme embodiment of female beauty, whether she is or is not physically in Troy and whether she acts as an enthusiastic partner of Paris or as a reluctant victim of his unwanted rape. Euripides expands more on this idea by presenting his play largely from Helen’s point of view, revealing how she truly feels about being the symbolic villain of the Trojan War. Helen’s character in the play is deeply affected by the losses of the people who have died fighting to bring her back to her homeland and husband and expresses this guilt frequently: “The wrecked city of Ilium / is given up to the teeth of fire, / all through me and the deaths I caused, / all for my name of affliction” (lines 196-198). Despite this guilt, she also feels anger for being made into a symbol that people can project their hate on, even though they do not know her:
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] |
970018
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Ocean%20%28video%20game%29
|
Star Ocean (video game)
|
is an action role-playing video game developed by tri-Ace and published by Enix for the Super Famicom. The first game in the Star Ocean series, it was released only in Japan in July 1996, and was the first game developed by tri-Ace, consisting of staff that had previously left Wolf Team due to being unhappy with the development process for Tales of Phantasia with Namco in 1995. The game used a special compression chip in its cartridge to compress and store all of the game's data due to possessing graphics that pushed the limits of the Super Famicom. Additionally, the game had voice acting for the game's intro and voice clips that played during the game's battle gameplay, a rarity for games on the system.
The story involves three friends who, while searching for the cure to a new disease, come into contact with a space-faring federation that is locked in a war with another galactic power. Using advanced technologies and time travel, the group attempts to uncover the cause of the war and to find a cure for their planet. The Super Famicom version was never released outside Japan due to Enix closing its American branch shortly before the game was finished, as well as Nintendo's focus on supporting the then-upcoming Nintendo 64 video game console. However, the game was later remade by Tose for the PlayStation Portable under the title , and released in English-speaking regions in North America, Europe, and Australia in October 2008. A remastered version titled was released for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 worldwide in December 2019. The game was the start of the entire Star Ocean series, featuring five main games, 3 spin-offs, a remake, a remaster, and a manga.
Gameplay
Star Ocean is a role-playing video game that is played from a top-down perspective. The player navigates a character throughout the game world, exploring towns and dungeons and interacting with non-player characters. Unlike the original game, the PlayStation Portable remake includes a world map for the player to navigate.
Party
In progressing through the game, the player is able to recruit up to eight additional characters to travel alongside the protagonist; some recruitments happen automatically, while others only happen depending on the previous actions and options taken by the player. Though only 8 characters can be recruited in a playthrough, ten characters are available to be recruited, and as a result not all characters can be recruited in one playthrough of the game. Certain characters cannot be recruited unless the players party is a specific size, or the players has made specific story decisions. In First Departure, players have the option of recruiting characters they did not previously have the option of adding to their party.
Battle
When players move their party in the game's dungeons and paths, random battles occur. Combat is done in a 3D isometric point of view. Unlike games in the Final Fantasy or Dragon Quest series, the battles are not turn based, but play out in real time. Players also do not directly control all of their characters' actions, but instead chose battle strategies beforehand for all but one of their characters who then move and attack their closest enemy automatically. Added to First Departure was a combo attack system where special attacks stack to become more powerful. Players can equip characters with four special abilities with "ranged" and "distance" slots, whereas the remake reduced that number to two. Up to four characters can participate in battles, but the player is only able to control one character at a time, leaving the others to be controlled by the computer's artificial intelligence. The player can switch which character is being controlled in battle. All characters have a standard "attack" option, in which the character's equipped item is used to attack whichever enemy the player has locked on to. Additionally, special techniques called Symbology can be used as well, which have the potential to deal more damage, but cost MP (Mental Points), of which each character has a finite amount. Special attacks are assigned before combat begins.
Customization
Special Points (abbreviated "SP" in game) are also rewarded from battles, and are used to customize the character's abilities. For instance, allotting SP to the cooking ability grants or improves a given character's ability to make consumable foods out of raw materials in order to heal characters from damage taken in battles. Item creation can allow for characters to be able to create weapons and equipment that are stronger than those available to be bought in stores and towns. Individual items have a 20 item limit.
Affection system
Star Ocean has a game mechanic called "Private Actions" that plays a role in character development. While entirely optional, they often reveal additional backstory of particular characters or have other varying effects on gameplay. Upon arriving in a town, the player can opt to have all the characters in the party to temporarily split up and go their separate ways within the limitations of the town. The player retains control of just Ratix, and is able to look for the other characters. Upon finding other party members, various events may happen; sometimes only small talk results, other times, larger events happen, that may even require a choice to be made by the player. Depending on the results, this can cause characters to either gain or lose "affinity" toward other characters in the party. For example, if one character loves another, the affinity level will be high, but if the former is mistreated, it will lower their feelings for the latter. A character's affinity towards one another can have effects on the rest of the game. Affinity also affect which character's endings players see. While the game's overarching plot always largely ends the same, various parts of the ending are changed, added, or left out, depending on characters' affinity at the end of the game.
Synopsis
Plot
The game
|
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] |
970018
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Ocean%20%28video%20game%29
|
Star Ocean (video game)
|
lay out in real time. Players also do not directly control all of their characters' actions, but instead chose battle strategies beforehand for all but one of their characters who then move and attack their closest enemy automatically. Added to First Departure was a combo attack system where special attacks stack to become more powerful. Players can equip characters with four special abilities with "ranged" and "distance" slots, whereas the remake reduced that number to two. Up to four characters can participate in battles, but the player is only able to control one character at a time, leaving the others to be controlled by the computer's artificial intelligence. The player can switch which character is being controlled in battle. All characters have a standard "attack" option, in which the character's equipped item is used to attack whichever enemy the player has locked on to. Additionally, special techniques called Symbology can be used as well, which have the potential to deal more damage, but cost MP (Mental Points), of which each character has a finite amount. Special attacks are assigned before combat begins.
Customization
Special Points (abbreviated "SP" in game) are also rewarded from battles, and are used to customize the character's abilities. For instance, allotting SP to the cooking ability grants or improves a given character's ability to make consumable foods out of raw materials in order to heal characters from damage taken in battles. Item creation can allow for characters to be able to create weapons and equipment that are stronger than those available to be bought in stores and towns. Individual items have a 20 item limit.
Affection system
Star Ocean has a game mechanic called "Private Actions" that plays a role in character development. While entirely optional, they often reveal additional backstory of particular characters or have other varying effects on gameplay. Upon arriving in a town, the player can opt to have all the characters in the party to temporarily split up and go their separate ways within the limitations of the town. The player retains control of just Ratix, and is able to look for the other characters. Upon finding other party members, various events may happen; sometimes only small talk results, other times, larger events happen, that may even require a choice to be made by the player. Depending on the results, this can cause characters to either gain or lose "affinity" toward other characters in the party. For example, if one character loves another, the affinity level will be high, but if the former is mistreated, it will lower their feelings for the latter. A character's affinity towards one another can have effects on the rest of the game. Affinity also affect which character's endings players see. While the game's overarching plot always largely ends the same, various parts of the ending are changed, added, or left out, depending on characters' affinity at the end of the game.
Synopsis
Plot
The game takes place in S.D 346 (A.D 2432), and starts off in a small town of Kratus on the under-developed planet of Roak. There, a few of the local Fellpool (cat-like people) youth, Roddick, Millie, and Dorne, are part of the village's local "Defense Force", who defend the village from minor threats such as thieves and robbers. However, one day, a neighboring town, Coule, starts contracting a terrible disease that turns people into stone. The town healer, Millie's father, contracts the disease while trying to get rid of it, leading the group to search Mt. Metorx for a herb that is rumored to cure any sickness. Dorne unintentionally contracts the disease as well after touching an infected pigeon.
When they reach the summit, they are confronted by Ronyx J. Kenny and Ilia Silvestri, two crew members of the Earth Federation (Terran Alliance in the PSP remake) starship Calnus. They inform them that the disease was sent to the planet by a foreign race called the Lezonians, whom the Earth Federation has been at war with. Roddick and Millie go with them on their spacecraft to help them find a cure. They learn that Fellpool blood could be used to process a special, invisible material which could give them a massive advantage in the war. Upon coming in contact with Lezonians, they reveal that they were being forced into war by a shadowy, powerful third party with a disgust for the Federation.
Before Dorne fully succumbs to the disease, they do tests on him to figure out a cure. They determined that the only possible way to fight it would be to make a vaccine that uses the original source of the disease. While the origin of the virus is tracked back to being on Roak itself, it is from Asmodeus, the King of the Demon World, who had been killed 300 years prior to the spread of the disease. Ronyx talks the group into using a Time Gate on the Planet Styx to go back 300 years into the past to track down Asmodeus back when he was still alive. While this works, Ilia trips while approaching the gate. As such, Ilia and Roddick have a delay from when they enter the time gate, and after the trip through time, they find themselves separated from Ronyx and Millie. The two groups work towards locating each other, and Asmodeus, in efforts to heal their family members and stop the war.
Characters
Roddick Farrence is a 19-year-old Fellpool swordsman and the game's protagonist. A childhood friend of Millie and Dorne who served with them as town watchmen before being swept into adventure. He is voiced by Yuri Lowenthal in the English version, Mamoru Miyano in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Hiro Yuki in Super Famicom original and remastered.
Millie Chliette is an 18-year-old Fellpool practitioner of Symbology healing magic who wields a staff, and a longtime friend and romantic interest for Roddick. She is voiced by Katie Leigh in the English version, Hitomi Nabatame in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Konami Yoshida in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Ro
|
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] |
970018
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Ocean%20%28video%20game%29
|
Star Ocean (video game)
|
takes place in S.D 346 (A.D 2432), and starts off in a small town of Kratus on the under-developed planet of Roak. There, a few of the local Fellpool (cat-like people) youth, Roddick, Millie, and Dorne, are part of the village's local "Defense Force", who defend the village from minor threats such as thieves and robbers. However, one day, a neighboring town, Coule, starts contracting a terrible disease that turns people into stone. The town healer, Millie's father, contracts the disease while trying to get rid of it, leading the group to search Mt. Metorx for a herb that is rumored to cure any sickness. Dorne unintentionally contracts the disease as well after touching an infected pigeon.
When they reach the summit, they are confronted by Ronyx J. Kenny and Ilia Silvestri, two crew members of the Earth Federation (Terran Alliance in the PSP remake) starship Calnus. They inform them that the disease was sent to the planet by a foreign race called the Lezonians, whom the Earth Federation has been at war with. Roddick and Millie go with them on their spacecraft to help them find a cure. They learn that Fellpool blood could be used to process a special, invisible material which could give them a massive advantage in the war. Upon coming in contact with Lezonians, they reveal that they were being forced into war by a shadowy, powerful third party with a disgust for the Federation.
Before Dorne fully succumbs to the disease, they do tests on him to figure out a cure. They determined that the only possible way to fight it would be to make a vaccine that uses the original source of the disease. While the origin of the virus is tracked back to being on Roak itself, it is from Asmodeus, the King of the Demon World, who had been killed 300 years prior to the spread of the disease. Ronyx talks the group into using a Time Gate on the Planet Styx to go back 300 years into the past to track down Asmodeus back when he was still alive. While this works, Ilia trips while approaching the gate. As such, Ilia and Roddick have a delay from when they enter the time gate, and after the trip through time, they find themselves separated from Ronyx and Millie. The two groups work towards locating each other, and Asmodeus, in efforts to heal their family members and stop the war.
Characters
Roddick Farrence is a 19-year-old Fellpool swordsman and the game's protagonist. A childhood friend of Millie and Dorne who served with them as town watchmen before being swept into adventure. He is voiced by Yuri Lowenthal in the English version, Mamoru Miyano in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Hiro Yuki in Super Famicom original and remastered.
Millie Chliette is an 18-year-old Fellpool practitioner of Symbology healing magic who wields a staff, and a longtime friend and romantic interest for Roddick. She is voiced by Katie Leigh in the English version, Hitomi Nabatame in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Konami Yoshida in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Ronyx J. Kenny is the 38-year-old human captain of the starship Calnus, and uses a bow and arrows after leaving his phaser weapon behind. He is the father of Claude C. Kenny, the protagonist of Star Ocean: The Second Story. He is voiced by Sam Gold in the English version, Kenji Hamada in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Akira Okamori in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Ilia Silvestri is the 23-year-old human head science officer on the Calnus, serving under Ronyx. She fights using martial arts supplemented by gloves or claws, and enjoys alcohol. She is voiced by Julie Maddalena in the English version, Sanae Kobayashi in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Wakana Yamazaki in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Cyuss Warren is a 20-year-old Highlander who wields a large broadsword. Son of Lord Lias, one of the Three Heroes of the Demonic Wars, he dreams of becoming the greatest swordsman in the land. He is voiced by Grant George in the English version, and Hiroki Tochi in both Japanese versions.
Ashlay Bernbeldt is a 57-year-old Highlander soldier wandering the world to find a successor in which to teach his sword skills. If recruited, he forms such a relationship with Roddick, and thus they share many of the same techniques. He is voiced by Michael McConnohie in the English version, and Norio Wakamoto in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Kazuhiko Inoue in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Phia Melle is a 20-year-old Highlander and the head of the Astral Knights who uses throwing daggers in combat with the Hisho-ken style. She has feelings for Cyuss, but hides them under her outward desire to be a great knight. She is voiced by Dorothy Fahn in the English version, Megumi Toyoguchi in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Konami Yoshida in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Mavelle Froesson is a mysterious 19-year-old sorceress who accompanies Ronyx and Millie to Ionis. Her weapon is an orb that she throws at the enemy. She is voiced by Tara Platt in the English version, Hoko Kuwashima in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Nozomi Nonaka in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Ioshua Jerand is a 20-year-old magic-using Featherfolk who is searching for his sister Erys, whom he was separated from after their parents were murdered. He despises combat, but realizes it as a necessary evil to survive in the world. He is voiced by Ezra Weisz in the English version, Jun Fukuyama in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Nobuyuki Hiyama in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
T'nique Arcana is an 18-year-old Lycanthrope who can transform into a dark blue werewolf in battle, and trains to become an excellent fighter and martial artist. He is voiced by Vic Mignogna in the English version, Chihiro Suzuki in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Takuya Fujisaki in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Pericci is a 16-year-old Lesser Fellpool with more pronounced cat-like features includin
|
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] |
970018
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Ocean%20%28video%20game%29
|
Star Ocean (video game)
|
nyx J. Kenny is the 38-year-old human captain of the starship Calnus, and uses a bow and arrows after leaving his phaser weapon behind. He is the father of Claude C. Kenny, the protagonist of Star Ocean: The Second Story. He is voiced by Sam Gold in the English version, Kenji Hamada in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Akira Okamori in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Ilia Silvestri is the 23-year-old human head science officer on the Calnus, serving under Ronyx. She fights using martial arts supplemented by gloves or claws, and enjoys alcohol. She is voiced by Julie Maddalena in the English version, Sanae Kobayashi in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Wakana Yamazaki in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Cyuss Warren is a 20-year-old Highlander who wields a large broadsword. Son of Lord Lias, one of the Three Heroes of the Demonic Wars, he dreams of becoming the greatest swordsman in the land. He is voiced by Grant George in the English version, and Hiroki Tochi in both Japanese versions.
Ashlay Bernbeldt is a 57-year-old Highlander soldier wandering the world to find a successor in which to teach his sword skills. If recruited, he forms such a relationship with Roddick, and thus they share many of the same techniques. He is voiced by Michael McConnohie in the English version, and Norio Wakamoto in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Kazuhiko Inoue in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Phia Melle is a 20-year-old Highlander and the head of the Astral Knights who uses throwing daggers in combat with the Hisho-ken style. She has feelings for Cyuss, but hides them under her outward desire to be a great knight. She is voiced by Dorothy Fahn in the English version, Megumi Toyoguchi in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Konami Yoshida in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Mavelle Froesson is a mysterious 19-year-old sorceress who accompanies Ronyx and Millie to Ionis. Her weapon is an orb that she throws at the enemy. She is voiced by Tara Platt in the English version, Hoko Kuwashima in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Nozomi Nonaka in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Ioshua Jerand is a 20-year-old magic-using Featherfolk who is searching for his sister Erys, whom he was separated from after their parents were murdered. He despises combat, but realizes it as a necessary evil to survive in the world. He is voiced by Ezra Weisz in the English version, Jun Fukuyama in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Nobuyuki Hiyama in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
T'nique Arcana is an 18-year-old Lycanthrope who can transform into a dark blue werewolf in battle, and trains to become an excellent fighter and martial artist. He is voiced by Vic Mignogna in the English version, Chihiro Suzuki in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Takuya Fujisaki in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Pericci is a 16-year-old Lesser Fellpool with more pronounced cat-like features including feline ears and fangs. Pericci serves as comedic relief, starting with low stats but gains several powerful techniques. She is voiced by Alicyn Packard in the English version, Yukari Tamura in the Japanese remake and remastered, and Wakana Yamazaki in the Super Famicom original and remastered.
Erys Jerand is Ioshua's 17-year-old sister who was kidnapped when they were children, and was brainwashed to be an assassin by the mysterious Crimson Shield. She later escaped and swapped her body with Mavelle to search for her parents' killer in secret. Erys does not appear in the original Super Famicom release, and is voiced by Stephanie Sheh in English, and Kana Ueda in Japanese.
Welch Vineyard is a mysterious 18-year-old traveler who appears somewhat ditzy and interested in meeting guys. Welch, like Erys, is only available in the remake. She first appeared as a non-playable character in Star Ocean: Till the End of Time, but has been retroactively added to the first two games. She is voiced by Melissa Fahn in the English version, and Tomoe Hanba in the Japanese version.
Development
In 1994, video game developers Wolf Team signed a deal with publisher Namco to release the game that would be Tales of Phantasia, which was later released in 1995 in Japan for the Super Famicom. However, the development cycle for this game was plagued with creative disputes between the developers and publisher, leading to much of the development team leaving to form a new company, which would become tri-Ace, which explains some of the common themes between the games, such as the similar battle systems.
After Tales of Phantasia was completed, some of the game's designers felt that the core skill and item systems were too "generic", and for their next game they would make a much deeper gameplay experience. To deepen the story, the "private action" system was created to reveal more of the characters history, personality and relationships, but the score the game generated from various choices was hidden from players since there was no "right" or "wrong" story path. In order to tell a "bigger" story, space was chosen as the setting.
Both Tales of Phantasia and Star Ocean stretched the power of the Super Famicom to its limits, with a total of 48 megabits of data. Additionally, Star Ocean was also one of two games that used a special S-DD1 chip to aid in compression of almost all graphics and map data, meaning that it effectively stored even more data than Tales of Phantasia, though the compression led to a lower audio quality. The game also featured special technology called a "Flexible Voice Driver" that allowed for the compression of sound, allowing for voice clips for characters when in battles, another trait that was both very rare for a Super Famicom game, and shared with Tales of Phantasia. Different voice clips would be played depending on the scenario; if the characters were confronted by weak enemies, they may say something more confident, where as if confronted by s
|
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0.005861421,
0.050527267,
0.05132482,
-0.014496681,
-0.07773787,
0.03166751,
0.05132482,
0.0103974985
] |
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