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Query: Adding FDA-Approved Viruses to Meat
The association between cured and broiled meat consumption by the mother during pregnancy and by the child was examined in relation to childhood cancer. Five meat groups (ham, bacon, or sausage; hot dogs; hamburgers; bologna, pastrami, corned beef, salami, or lunch meat; charcoal broiled foods) were assessed. Exposures among 234 cancer cases (including 56 acute lymphocytic leukemia [ALL], 45 brain tumor) and 206 controls selected by random-digit dialing in the Denver, Colorado (United States) standard metropolitan statistical area were compared, with adjustment for confounders. Maternal hot-dog consumption of one or more times per week was associated with childhood brain tumors (odds ratio [OR] = 2.3, 95 percent confidence interval [CI] = 1.0-5.4). Among children, eating hamburgers one or more times per week was associated with risk of ALL (OR = 2.0, CI = 0.9-4.6) and eating hot dogs one or more times per week was associated with brain tumors (OR = 2.1, CI = 0.7-6.1). Among children, the combination of no vitamins and eating meats was associated more strongly with both ALL and brain cancer than either no vitamins or meat consumption alone, producing ORs of two to seven. The results linking hot dogs and brain tumors (replicating an earlier study) and the apparent synergism between no vitamins and meat consumption suggest a possible adverse effect of dietary nitrites and nitrosamines.
Background and objectives: Uncooked meat and poultry products are commonly enhanced by food processors using phosphate salts. The addition of potassium and phosphorus to these foods has been recognized but not quantified. Design, setting, participants, & measurements: We measured the phosphorus, potassium, and protein content of 36 uncooked meat and poultry products: Phosphorus using the Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC) official method 984.27, potassium using AOAC official method 985.01, and protein using AOAC official method 990.03. Results: Products that reported the use of additives had an average phosphate-protein ratio 28% higher than additive free products; the content ranged up to almost 100% higher. Potassium content in foods with additives varied widely; additive free products all contained <387 mg/100 g, whereas five of the 25 products with additives contained at least 692 mg/100 g (maximum 930 mg/100 g). Most but not all foods with phosphate and potassium additives reported the additives (unquantified) on the labeling; eight of 25 enhanced products did not list the additives. The results cannot be applied to other products. The composition of the food additives used by food processors may change over time. Conclusions: Uncooked meat and poultry products that are enhanced may contain additives that increase phosphorus and potassium content by as much as almost two- and three-fold, respectively; this modification may not be discernible from inspection of the food label.
To determine the presence of Clostridium difficile, we sampled cooked and uncooked meat products sold in Tucson, Arizona. Forty-two percent contained toxigenic C. difficile strains (either ribotype 078/toxinotype V [73%] or 027/toxinotype III [NAP1 or NAP1-related; 27%]). These findings indicate that food products may play a role in interspecies C. difficile transmission.
Clostridium difficile has been recognized as an important human pathogen for several decades, but its importance as an agent of animal disease was established only recently. The number of reports on C. difficile in food is rising, but the findings vary among studies. In North America, the prevalence of contamination in retail meat and meat products ranges from 4.6% to 50%. In European countries, the percentage of C. difficile positive samples is much lower (0-3%). This chapter summarizes current data on association of C. difficile with different foods and the difficulties associated with isolation of the organism, and discusses the potential of C. difficile as a food-transmitted pathogen. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
The thermal stability of virulent hepatitis E virus (HEV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) was compared. Fecal suspensions of virus were heated to temperatures between 45 degrees C and 70 degrees C, and residual infectivity was determined in a cell culture system that was permissive for both viruses. Although HEV was less stable than was HAV, some HEV would most likely survive the internal temperatures of rare-cooked meat.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major global public health concern and could be a food safety issue. Recurrent reports have documented that pig herds are an important reservoir for MRSA, specifically the livestock-associated sequence type 398. The high prevalence of MRSA in pig primary production facilities and the frequent detection of MRSA of the same types in pork and pig meat products raise the question of underlying mechanisms behind the introduction and transmission of MRSA along the pork production chain. A comprehensive review of current literature on the worldwide presence of livestock-associated MRSA in various steps of the pork production chain revealed that the slaughter process plays a decisive role in MRSA transmission from farm to fork. Superficial heat treatments such as scalding and flaming during the slaughter process can significantly reduce the burden of MRSA on the carcasses. However, recontamination with MRSA might occur via surface treating machinery, as a result of fecal contamination at evisceration, or via increased human handling during meat processing. By optimizing processes for carcass decontamination and avoiding recontamination by effective cleaning and personal hygiene management, transmission of MRSA from pig to pork can be minimized.
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important but extremely understudied pathogen. The mechanisms of HEV replication and pathogenesis are poorly understood, and a vaccine against HEV is not yet available. HEV is classified in the family Hepeviridae consisting of at least four recognized major genotypes. Genotypes 1 and 2 HEV are restricted to humans and associated with epidemics in developing countries, whereas genotypes 3 and 4 HEV are zoonotic and responsible for sporadic cases worldwide. The identification and characterization of a number of animal strains of HEV from pigs, chickens, rabbits, rats, mongoose, deer, and possibly cattle and sheep have significantly broadened the host range and diversity of HEV. The demonstrated ability of cross-species infection by some animal strains of HEV raises public health concerns for zoonotic HEV infection. Pigs are a recognized reservoir for HEV, and pig handlers are at increased risk of zoonotic HEV infection. Sporadic cases of hepatitis E have been definitively linked to the consumption of raw or undercooked animal meats such as pig livers, sausages, and deer meats. In addition, since large amounts of viruses excreted in feces, animal manure land application and runoffs can contaminate irrigation and drinking water with concomitant contamination of produce or shellfish. HEV RNA of swine origin has been detected in swine manure, sewage water and oysters, and consumption of contaminated shellfish has also been implicated in sporadic cases of hepatitis E. Therefore, the animal strains of HEV pose not only a zoonotic risk but also food and environmental safety concerns.
Although uncommon in North America, Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been identified in some industrialized countries in patients without a history of travel to HEV-endemic countries. Its presence is ubiquitous worldwide in swine populations. Zoonotic transmission of swine HEV to non human primates has been achieved experimentally and transmission of HEV after ingestion of contaminated raw or undercooked meat is well documented. In Canada, so far, no HEV outbreak has been documented but HEV genotype 3 strains have been identified in sera and faecal samples of swine origin. The objective of the present study was to determine the viral load of HEV in liver, loin, bladder, hepatic lymph node, bile, tonsil, plasma and faeces samples of 43 pigs at slaughter. Feline calicivirus (FCV) was used as sample process control to validate the RNA extraction process, as a confirmation of the absence of sample inhibitors and as an amplification control. Using FCV/HEV multiplex TaqMan RT-qPCR system, HEV RNA was detected in 14 out of the 43 animals tested. HEV was detected in lymph nodes (11/43), bladder (10/43), liver (9/43), bile (8/43), faeces (6/43), tonsils (3/43), plasma (1/43) samples from infected animals. No HEV-positive loin samples were observed. Viral loads of 10(3) to 10(7) copies/g were estimated in positive liver and bile samples. Crown Copyright 2010. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Background The recent increased interest in consuming green vegetable sprouts has been tempered by the fact that fresh sprouts can in some cases be vehicles for food-borne illnesses. They must be grown according to proper conditions of sanitation and handled as a food product rather than as an agricultural commodity. When sprouts are grown in accordance with the criteria proposed from within the sprout industry, developed by regulatory agencies, and adhered to by many sprouters, green sprouts can be produced with very low risk. Contamination may occur when these guidelines are not followed. Methods A one year program of microbial hold-and-release testing, conducted in concert with strict seed and facility cleaning procedures by 13 U.S. broccoli sprout growers was evaluated. Microbial contamination tests were performed on 6839 drums of sprouts, equivalent to about 5 million consumer packages of fresh green sprouts. Results Only 24 (0.75%) of the 3191 sprout samples gave an initial positive test for Escherichia coli O157:H7 or Salmonella spp., and when re-tested, 3 drums again tested positive. Composite testing (e.g., pooling up to 7 drums for pathogen testing) was equally sensitive to single drum testing. Conclusion By using a "test-and-re-test" protocol, growers were able to minimize crop destruction. By pooling drums for testing, they were also able to reduce testing costs which now represent a substantial portion of the costs associated with sprout growing. The test-and-hold scheme described herein allowed those few batches of contaminated sprouts to be found prior to packaging and shipping. These events were isolated, and only safe sprouts entered the food supply.
Since the Second World War the consumer behaviour in developed countries changed drastically. Primarily there existed the demand for sufficient food after a period of starvation, afterwards the desire for higher quality was arising, whereas today most people ask for safe and healthy food with high quality. Therefore a united approach comprising consistent standards, sound science and robust controls is required to ensure consumers' health and to maintain consumers' confidence and satisfaction. Chemical analysis along the whole food chain downstream (tracking) from primary production to the consumer and upstream (tracing) from the consumer to primary production is an important prerequisite to ensure food safety and quality. In this frame the focus of the following paper is the "chemical safety of meat and meat products" taking into account inorganic as well as organic residues and contaminants, the use of nitrite in meat products, the incidence of veterinary drugs, as well as a Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) system assessing (prioritizing) vulnerable food chain steps to decrease or eliminate vulnerability.
Sodium nitrite and formalin have been used as preservatives in the fish meal industry in Norway since 1953. In 1957, fur farms suffered losses of mink due to a new, malignant liver disease. Experimental feeding of herring meal to cows and sheep resulted in the death of some of the animals. Further studies showed that amines (TMAO) normally present in fish, can react with sodium nitrite used as preservative, or nitrogen oxides from the combustion of fuel oils used during processing, to produce the toxic agent, NDMA. Mink and fox may consume considerable amounts of fish meal in their diets. If the fish meal contains sufficient NDMA, the incidence of liver failure or tumours can be quite high. Long-term exposure to as little as 0.1 mg NDMA/kg b.w./day in the diet of mink, cows and sheep can produce fibro-occlusive changes in the hepatic vessels. These lesions can later cause capillary ectasies-like changes in cows, which are similar in appearance to hemangiomas seen in mink. The mink liver hemangiomas develop into hemangiosarcomas. We currently consider capillary ectasies-like changes in cows exposed to NDMA to represent pre-cancerous lesions.
Recently, it has been suggested that the Escherichia coli causing urinary tract infection (UTI) may come from meat and animals. The purpose was to investigate if a clonal link existed between E. coli from animals, meat and UTI patients. Twenty-two geographically and temporally matched B2 E. coli from UTI patients, community-dwelling humans, broiler chicken meat, pork, and broiler chicken, previously identified to exhibit eight virulence genotypes by microarray-detection of approximately 300 genes, were investigated for clonal relatedness by PFGE. Nine isolates were selected and tested for in vivo virulence in the mouse model of ascending UTI. UTI and community-dwelling human strains were closely clonally related to meat strains. Several human derived strains were also clonally interrelated. All nine isolates regardless of origin were virulent in the UTI model with positive urine, bladder and kidney cultures. Further, isolates with the same gene profile also yielded similar bacterial counts in urine, bladder and kidneys. This study showed a clonal link between E. coli from meat and humans, providing solid evidence that UTI is zoonosis. The close relationship between community-dwelling human and UTI isolates may indicate a point source spread, e.g. through contaminated meat.
AIMS: The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) contamination of retail meat and to determine the level of contamination. METHODS AND RESULTS: Pork (pork chops and ground pork), ground beef and chicken (legs, wings and thighs) were purchased at retail outlets in four Canadian provinces and tested for the presence of methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus using qualitative and quantitative methods. MRSA was isolated from 9.6% of pork, 5.6% of beef and 1.2% of chicken samples (P = 0.0002). Low levels of MRSA were typically present, with 37% below the detection threshold for quantification and <100 CFU g(-1) present in most quantifiable samples. All isolates were classified as Canadian epidemic MRSA-2 (CMRSA-2) by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), with two different PFGE subtypes, and were spa type 24/t242. CONCLUSIONS: MRSA contamination of retail meat is not uncommon. While CMRSA-2, a human epidemic clone, has been found in pigs in Canada, the lack of isolation of livestock-associated ST398 was surprising. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The relevance of MRSA contamination of meat is unclear but investigation is required because of the potential for exposure from food handling. Sources of contamination require investigation because these results suggest that human or animal sources could be involved.
It was the aim of this study to examine the association of the consumption of meat in general, meat prepared by different cooking methods and the dietary intake of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCA) with the level of DNA adducts in the breast tissue of women undergoing reduction mammoplasty. Dietary intake of meat and HCA were assessed via questionnaire in 44 women undergoing reduction mammoplasty. DNA adduct analysis in breast tissue was performed by (32)P-postlabelling analysis. Spearman rank correlation coefficients (r) were calculated to examine the association of meat consumption and dietary HCA intake with tissue DNA adduct levels. A median DNA adduct level of 18.45 (interquartile range 12.81-25.65) per 10(9) nucleotides in breast tissue was observed; median HCA intake was 40.43 ng/day (interquartile range 19.55-102.33 ng/day). Total HCA intake (r = 0.33, P = 0.03), consumption of fried meat (r = 0.39, P = 0.01), beef (r = 0.32, P = 0.03) and processed meat (r = 0.51, P = 0.0004) were statistically significantly correlated with the level of DNA adducts in breast tissue. The detected DNA adducts could not be confirmed to be specific HCA-derived DNA adducts by comparison with external standards, using the (32)P-postlabelling assay. We observed strong correlations of dietary HCA intake and consumption of fried and processed meat with DNA adduct levels in breast tissue of 44 women. Since the detected DNA adducts were not necessarily specific only for HCA, it is possible that HCA intake is a surrogate of other genotoxic substances, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in meat prepared at high temperatures.
AIMS: This study was designed to evaluate the prevalence of Clostridium difficile contamination of retail chicken. METHODS AND RESULTS: Chicken legs, thighs and wings were purchased using a standardized method from retail outlets across Ontario, Canada. Selective culture was used for qualitative and quantitative detection of C. difficile. Clostridium difficile was isolated from 26/203 (12.8%) chicken samples; 10/111 (9.0%) thighs, 13/72 (18%) wings and 3/20 (15%) legs (P = 0.19). All isolates were ribotype 078, a strain that has been associated with food animals and potentially community-associated disease in humans. All positive samples were positive only on enrichment culture. CONCLUSIONS: Clostridium difficile could be found relatively commonly in retail chicken meat, albeit at low levels. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first study to report C. difficile in chicken meat. Contamination of meat with C. difficile strains implicated in human infections raises concerns about food as a source of C. difficile infection. The relevance of food contamination is completely unclear at this point but food should be investigated as a source of infection.
IMPORTANCE: Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidance allows food manufacturers to determine whether additives to food are "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS). Manufacturers are not required to notify the FDA of a GRAS determination, although in some instances they notify the agency. The individuals that companies select to make these determinations may have financial conflicts of interest. OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent to which individuals selected by manufacturers to make GRAS determinations have conflicts of interest between their obligations to ensure that the use of the additive is safe and their financial relationships to the company. DESIGN Using conflict of interest criteria developed by a committee of the Institute of Medicine, we analyzed 451 GRAS notifications that were voluntarily submitted to the FDA between 1997 and 2012. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Number of GRAS notices submitted to the FDA; frequency of various types of relationships between decision maker and additive manufacturer; frequency of participation on GRAS panels by individuals; and number of GRAS safety determinations identified by the FDA that were not submitted to the agency. RESULTS: For the 451 GRAS notifications, 22.4% of the safety assessments were made by an employee of an additive manufacturer, 13.3% by an employee of a consulting firm selected by the manufacturer, and 64.3% by an expert panel selected by either a consulting firm or the manufacturer. A standing expert panel selected by a third party made none of these safety assessments. The 290 panels that made GRAS determinations had an average of 3.5 members, with a maximum of 7. Ten individuals served on 27 or more panels; 1 individual served on 128 panels (44.1%). At least 1 of the 10 individuals with the most frequent service was a member of 225 panels (77.6%). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Between 1997 and 2012, financial conflicts of interest were ubiquitous in determinations that an additive to food was GRAS. The lack of independent review in GRAS determinations raises concerns about the integrity of the process and whether it ensures the safety of the food supply, particularly in instances where the manufacturer does not notify the FDA of the determination. The FDA should address these concerns.
To determine the presence of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and other potentially diarrheagenic E. coli strains in retail meats, 7,258 E. coli isolates collected by the U.S. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) retail meat program from 2002 to 2007 were screened for Shiga toxin genes. In addition, 1,275 of the E. coli isolates recovered in 2006 were examined for virulence genes specific for other diarrheagenic E. coli strains. Seventeen isolates (16 from ground beef and 1 from a pork chop) were positive for stx genes, including 5 positive for both stx1 and stx2, 2 positive for stx1, and 10 positive for stx2. The 17 STEC strains belonged to 10 serotypes: O83:H8, O8:H16, O15:H16, O15:H17, O88:H38, ONT:H51, ONT:H2, ONT:H10, ONT:H7, and ONT:H46. None of the STEC isolates contained eae, whereas seven carried enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) hlyA. All except one STEC isolate exhibited toxic effects on Vero cells. DNA sequence analysis showed that the stx2 genes from five STEC isolates encoded mucus-activatable Stx2d. Subtyping of the 17 STEC isolates by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) yielded 14 distinct restriction patterns. Among the 1,275 isolates from 2006, 11 atypical enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) isolates were identified in addition to 3 STEC isolates. This study demonstrated that retail meats, mainly ground beef, were contaminated with diverse STEC strains. The presence of atypical EPEC strains in retail meat is also of concern due to their potential to cause human infections.
Heterocyclic amines (HCAs), potent mutagens and a risk factor for human cancers, are produced in meats cooked at high temperature. The aim of this study was to determine the HCA content in cooked meat products (beef, chicken, pork, fish) prepared by various cooking methods (pan frying, oven broiling, and oven baking at 170 to 230°C) that are preferred by U.S. meat consumers. The primary HCAs in these samples were PhIP (2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b]pyridine) (1.49-10.89ng/g), MeIQx (2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo [4,5-f]quinoxaline) (not detected-4.0ng/g), and DiMeIQx (2-amino-3,4,8-trimethyl-imidazo [4,5-f]quinoxaline) (not detected-3.57ng/g). Type and content of HCAs in cooked meat samples were highly dependent on cooking conditions. The total HCA content in well-done meat was 3.5 times higher than that of medium-rare meat. Fried pork (13.91ng/g) had higher levels of total HCAs than fried beef (8.92ng/g) and fried chicken (7.00ng/g). Among the samples, fried bacon contained the highest total HCA content (17.59ng/g). Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Antibiotics are used by veterinarians and producers to treat disease and improve animal production. The federal government, to ensure the safety of the food supply, establishes antibiotic residue tolerances in edible animal tissues and determines the target tissues (e.g., muscle) for residue monitoring. However, when muscle is selected as the target tissue, the federal government does not specify which type of muscle tissue is used for monitoring (e.g., breast versus thigh). If specific muscle tissues incorporate residues at higher concentrations, these tissues should be selected for residue monitoring. To evaluate this possibility in poultry, chickens were divided into four groups and at 33 days of age were dosed with enrofloxacin (Baytril), as per label directions, at either 25 ppm for 3 days, 25 ppm for 7 days, 50 ppm for 3 days, or 50 ppm for 7 days. Breast and thigh muscle tissues were collected from each bird (n = 5 birds per day per group) during the dosing and withdrawal period, and fluoroquinolone concentrations were determined. The results indicate higher overall enrofloxacin concentrations in breast versus thigh muscle for each treatment group (P < 0.05). These data indicate, at least for enrofloxacin, that not all muscle tissues incorporate antibiotics at the same concentrations. These results may be helpful to regulatory agencies as they determine what tissues are to be monitored to ensure that the established residue safety tolerance levels are not exceeded.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) terminated the use of ball clay from a mine in Mississippi as an additive in animal feed after discovering nanogram per gram concentrations of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD). The FDA collected chicken eggs and farm-raised catfish in affected areas and throughout the remaining continental United States to assess levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD. A new method using quadrupole ion storage tandem-in-time mass spectrometry (QISTMS) measured the 2,3,7,8-TCDD levels in 42 catfish fillet composites, 3 Tilapia fillet composites, 46 chicken egg samples, and 6 chicken feeds. Six catfish composites and 20 egg samples had 2,3,7,8-TCDD concentrations significantly above 1.0 pg/g wet weight of fillet or whole egg. Farm-raised catfish not exposed to feed containing ball clay had a mean 2,3,7,8-TCDD concentration of 0.12 pg/g. The TCDD isomer pattern in ball clay differed from the TCDD isomer pattern in a fly ash sample and from the "chick edema factor" TCDD pattern in a sample of reference toxic fat used as a feed ingredient in the 1950s.
The effect of meat consumption on cancer risk is a controversial issue. However, recent meta-analyses show that high consumers of cured meats and red meat are at increased risk of colorectal cancer. This increase is significant but modest (20-30%). Current WCRF-AICR recommendations are to eat no more than 500 g per week of red meat, and to avoid processed meat. Moreover, our studies show that beef meat and cured pork meat promote colon carcinogenesis in rats. The major promoter in meat is heme iron, via N-nitrosation or fat peroxidation. Dietary additives can suppress the toxic effects of heme iron. For instance, promotion of colon carcinogenesis in rats by cooked, nitrite-treated and oxidized high-heme cured meat was suppressed by dietary calcium and by α-tocopherol, and a study in volunteers supported these protective effects in humans. These additives, and others still under study, could provide an acceptable way to prevent colorectal cancer. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A low-grade inflammatory response ('metaflammation') has been found to be associated with certain chronic diseases. Proposed inducers of this have been aspects of the modern lifestyle, including newly introduced foods. Plasma TAG, and the inflammatory cytokines C-reactive protein (CRP), TNF-alpha and IL-6 were compared in a randomised, cross-over trial using ten healthy subjects before and after eating 100 g of kangaroo, or a 'new' form of hybridised beef (wagyu) separated by about 1 week. Postprandial levels for 1 and 2 h of TAG, IL-6 and TNF-alpha were significantly higher after eating wagyu compared with kangaroo (P = 0.002 for TAG at 1 h, P < 0.001 at 2 h; P < 0.001 for IL-6 and TNF-alpha at 1 and 2 h). CRP was significantly higher 1 h postprandially after wagyu (P = 0.011) and non-significantly higher 2 h postprandially (P = 0.090). We conclude that the metaflammatory reaction to ingestion of a 'new' form of hybridised beef (wagyu) is indicative of a low-grade, systemic, immune reaction when compared with lean game meat (kangaroo). Further studies using isoenergetic intake and isolating fatty acid components of meats are proposed.
We previously described how retail meat, particularly chicken, might be a reservoir for extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) causing urinary tract infections (UTIs) in humans. To rule out retail beef and pork as potential reservoirs, we tested 320 additional E. coli isolates from these meats. Isolates from beef and pork were significantly less likely than those from chicken to be genetically related to isolates from humans with UTIs. We then tested whether the reservoir for ExPEC in humans could be food animals themselves by comparing geographically and temporally matched E. coli isolates from 475 humans with UTIs and from cecal contents of 349 slaughtered animals. We found genetic similarities between E. coli from animals in abattoirs, principally chickens, and ExPEC causing UTIs in humans. ExPEC transmission from food animals could be responsible for human infections, and chickens are the most probable reservoir.
To quantify objectionable levels of connective tissues, restructured beef products were made with 2·5 and 5% added tendon; 5 and 10% added epimysium, gristle, or peri/endomysium; and a control. Initial tenderness (IT), residual connective tissue (CT), and overall texture (OT) were evaluated by a sensory panel. Panelists adversely scored IT, CT, and OT for 2·5 and 5% tendon and CT and OT for 10% epimysium and gristle. CT and OT scores correlated with hydroxyproline content and Lee-Kramer peak shear force for uncooked steaks with added tendon, gristle and epimysium but not peri/endomysium. Acceptable products can be made when raw materials are free of tendons and contain only limited amounts of epimysium. Copyright © 1990. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Among ten patients who contracted sporadic acute or fulminant hepatitis E between 2001 and 2002 in Hokkaido, Japan, nine (90 %) had a history of consuming grilled or undercooked pig liver 2-8 weeks before the disease onset. We tested packages of raw pig liver sold in grocery stores as food in Hokkaido for the presence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) RNA by RT-PCR. Pig liver specimens from seven (1.9 %) of 363 packages had detectable HEV RNA. Partial sequence analyses revealed that the seven swine HEV isolates belonged to genotype III or IV. One swine HEV isolate (swJL145) from a packaged pig liver had 100 % identity with the HE-JA18 isolate recovered from an 86-year-old patient in Hokkaido. Two swine HEV isolates (swJL234 and swJL325) had 98.5-100 % identity with the HE-JA4 isolate obtained from a 44-year-old patient in Hokkaido. These results indicate that inadequately cooked pig liver may transmit HEV to humans.