Question: what are the top 5 languages spoken in the us

Answer: Chinese

This is a document about Languages of the United States
 conversations, and even conversations in the street or on railway platforms in any language other than English, until the first of these laws was ruled unconstitutional in 1923 ("Meyer v. Nebraska"). Currently, Asian languages account for the majority of languages spoken in immigrant communities: Korean, the varieties of Chinese, and various Indian or South Asian languages like Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Kannada, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Telugu, Tamil and Malayalam, as well as Arabic, Vietnamese, Tagalog, Persian, and others. Typically, immigrant languages tend to be lost through assimilation within two or three generations, though there are some groups such as the Cajuns

This is a document about Languages of Texas
 Southern Nebraska. Recent immigrants from other US regions and foreign countries are causing a linguistic shift in Texas. Spanish speakers have risen to almost a third of the population; Vietnamese and Chinese have replaced German and French to become the third and fourth most spoken languages in Texas, respectively; with Hindi, Korean, Kurdish especially from Abtaf, from ASAD BEIG TRIBE *, and Tagalog filling out the top nine most spoken languages in Texas. Large numbers of non-native Texas residents are picking up some dialectal traits of Southern English, while other linguistic traits are being subdued into a national homogenizing trend.

This is a document about Languages of Norway
 Traveller speakers there are in Norway, but it is known that the language is alive. In 2013, there were approximately 4.5 million people in Norway who were capable of conversing in English to some extent, out of a population of 5.1 million. The country currently scores in the top 5 of the EF English Proficiency Index along with its Nordic neighbours. Languages of Norway There is a large number of languages spoken in Norway. Of these, the Norwegian language is the most widely spoken and the main official language of the country. The most widely spoken language in Norway is

This is a document about Languages of the United Kingdom
 Languages of the United Kingdom English, in various dialects, is the most widely spoken language of the United Kingdom, however there are a number of regional languages also spoken. There are 11 indigenous languages spoken across the British Isles: 5 Celtic, 3 Germanic, and 3 Romance. There are also many immigrant languages spoken in the British Isles, mainly within inner city areas; these languages are mainly from South Asia and Eastern Europe. The "de facto" official language of the United Kingdom is English, which is spoken by approximately 59.8 million residents, or 98% of the population, over the age of

This is a document about Biocultural diversity
 This decline has been especially observed in indigenous languages, with a 60% decline in the Americas, 30% in the Pacific, and 20% in Africa. Currently, there are 7,000 languages being spoken in the world. Half the population speaks only 25 of these languages, the top 5 in order being Mandarin, Spanish, English, Hindi, and Bengali. The remaining 6975 languages are divided between the other half of the population. Because languages develop in a given community of speakers as that society adapts to its environment, languages reflect and express the biodiversity of that area. In areas of high biodiversity, language diversity

This is a document about Languages of Colombia
 Languages of Colombia More than 99.2% of Colombians speak the Spanish language; also 65 Amerindian languages, 2 Creole languages and the Romani language are spoken in the country. English has official status in the San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina Islands. The overwhelming majority of Colombians speak Spanish (see also Colombian Spanish), but in total 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken

This is a document about Colombia
 Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country. English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.

This is a document about Languages of Mexico
 Chipilo), Italian, French, Occitan, Catalan, Basque, Galician, Asturian, Filipino, Polish, Hebrew, Korean, Ladino, Plautdietsch, Armenian, Japanese, Chinese and other languages are spoken by smaller numbers. Some of these languages (Venetian and Plautdietsch) are spoken in isolated communities or villages. The rest are spoken by immigrants or their descendants who tend to live in the larger cities and towns. As far as second languages go, many educated Mexicans (and those with little education who have immigrated to the US and returned) have different degrees of fluency in English. Many Mexicans working in the tourist industry can speak some English. Romani is

This is a document about Languages of the United Kingdom
 other parts of northern England as migrants from its core area further north. It may also have been spoken as far south as Pendle and the Yorkshire Dales. Most linguists think that it became extinct in the 12th century, after the incorporation of the semi-independent Kingdom of Strathclyde into the Kingdom of Scotland. Languages of the United Kingdom English, in various dialects, is the most widely spoken language of the United Kingdom, however there are a number of regional languages also spoken. There are 11 indigenous languages spoken across the British Isles: 5 Celtic, 3 Germanic, and 3 Romance. There

This is a document about Kurdish Americans
 alongside Arabic. Kurdi, or Sorani, emerged as the literary expression of Kurdish language and is recognized in Iraq as the official written form of Kurdish. Within the Kurdish language, there are three dialect groups: Northern Kurdish/Kurmanji (the largest group), Central Kurdish/Sorani, and Southern Kurdish/Laki. The existing linguistic divisions within the Kurdish language make it difficult to generalize about what languages are being spoken by Kurds in the United States. English is spoken much more frequently by younger generation Kurds than the older. Although an emerging phenomenon in the US, other diasporic Kurdish communities in the European Union have demonstrated that

This is a document about Top Road, Trenton, New Jersey
 the top country of origin, representing 35.7% of all foreign-born residents in Top Road. The Dominican Republic was the second-most common country of origin with 18% of the total; Costa Rica, Mexico, and Guatemala followed with 9.3%, 6.6%, and 5.8% respectively. India was the top country of origin outside of Europe and the Americas, representing 5% of the foreign-born population. Spanish and Polish were the top two languages spoken at home. Spanish was spoken at home by 30.4% of residents, while 15.3% spoke Polish at home. Top Road, Trenton, New Jersey Top Road is a neighborhood located within the city

This is a document about Ocampo, Camarines Sur
 with a density of . Partido Dialect is the primary dialect spoken in the entire town. Riŋkonāda or Rinconada Bikol is spoken by a minority of the population, along with Bicol Naga. Tagalog and English are also spoken and understood. In 2010, UNESCO released its 3rd world volume of Endangered Languages in the World, where 3 critically endangered languages were in the Philippines. One of these languages in the "Isarog Agta" language which has an estimated speaker of 5 people in the year 2000. The language was classified as "Critically Endangered", meaning the youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and

This is a document about Sign language
 and spoken English in the U.K., and American Sign Language (ASL) and spoken English in the US and most of anglophone Canada (since BSL and ASL are distinct sign languages both used in English-speaking countries), etc. Sign language interpreters who can translate between signed and spoken languages that are not normally paired (such as between LSE and English), are also available, albeit less frequently. With recent developments in artificial intelligence in computer science, some recent deep learning based machine translation algorithms have been developed which automatically translate short videos containing sign language sentences (often simple sentence consists of only one

This is a document about Languages of Namibia
 widely spoken languages used in households are Oshiwambo dialects, by 49% of the population, the Nama/Damara language by 11%, Afrikaans by 10%, Kavango language by 9% and Herero by 9%. Other native languages include the Bantu languages Tswana, Gciriku, Fwe, Kuhane, Mbukushu, Yeyi; and the Khoisan Naro, ǃXóõ, Kung-Ekoka, ǂKxʼauǁʼein and Kxoe. English, the official language, is spoken by 3% of people as their native language. Portuguese was spoken by 4–5% of the total population, i.e. 100,000 people, made up mostly of the Angolan community in 2014. The number of Angolans in Namibia declined from 2014 to 2015. The economic

This is a document about Celebic languages
 a "Greater Central Philippine" branch along with Tagalog. David Mead (2003a:125) lists the following sound changes for Celebic and its subgroups. 1. Proto-Malayo-Polynesian to Proto-Celebic 2. Proto-Celebic to Proto-Eastern Celebic 3. Proto-Eastern Celebic to Proto-Saluan–Banggai 4. Proto-Eastern Celebic to Proto-Southeastern Celebic 5. Proto-Southeastern Celebic to Proto-Bungku–Tolaki 6. Proto-Southeastern Celebic to Proto-Muna–Buton Celebic languages The Celebic languages are a proposed group of Austronesian languages spoken on the island of Sulawesi, formerly spelled "Celebes." Almost all of the languages spoken in the provinces of Central Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi belong to the Celebic group. A few Celebic languages (e.g. Wotu, Bonerate) are

This is a document about Puerto Ricans in the United States
 people born in the US mainland of Puerto Rican ancestry tend to merge traditional Puerto Rican culture with mainland American culture. The Puerto Rican variant of Spanish is mainly derived from the Spanish spoken in southern Spain and the Canary Islands. It also has noticeable influences from numerous languages, including Taíno and various West African languages. It is very similar to other Caribbean Spanish variants. About 83% of Puerto Ricans living in the United States ages 5 and older speak English proficiently, of whom 53% are bilingual in Spanish and English, and another 30% speak only English fluently with little

This is a document about Thorncliffe Park
 most popular language. The top 5 non-English languages spoken at home in Thorncliffe Park: The Toronto District School Board is a secular English public school board that operates several schools in Thorncliffe Park. Thorncliffe Park Public School and Fraser Mustard Early Learning Academy are the two schools in the residential area. Valley Park Middle School serves as the middle school from grades 6-8 for both the Thorncliffe Park and the Flemingdon Park area to the east. The high school that also serves both communities is Marc Garneau Collegiate Institute They are all within a 20-minute walk or 5-minute (or shorter)

This is a document about Demography of Northern Ireland
 while Strabane has the smallest share of these immigrants. Age bands broken down by place of birth in the 2011 census. Below are the 5 largest foreign-born groups in Northern Ireland according to 2014 ONS estimates. The following table shows the ethnic group of respondents in the 2001 and 2011 censuses. "See also Ethnic minorities in Northern Ireland" English is by far the most commonly spoken language in Northern Ireland. Two regional languages of Northern Ireland, Irish and Ulster Scots, are protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Several other languages are spoken by immigrants to Northern

This is a document about Languages of Spain
 Languages of Spain The languages of Spain (), or Spanish languages (), are the languages spoken or once spoken in Spain. Romance languages are the most widely spoken in Spain; of which Spanish, or Castilian, is the only language which has official status for the whole country. Various other languages have co-official or recognised status in specific territories, and a number of unofficial languages and dialects are spoken in certain localities. In terms of the number of speakers and dominance, the most prominent of the languages of Spain is Spanish (Castilian), spoken by about 99% of Spaniards as a first

This is a document about Languages of Tanzania
 Additionally, several Tanzanian sign languages are used. Major languages spoken in Tanzania include: Languages spoken by the country's ethnic minorities include: Languages of Tanzania Tanzania is a multilingual country. There are many languages spoken in the country, but no one language is spoken natively by a majority or a large plurality of the population. The Bantu Swahili language and English, the latter of which was inherited from colonial rule ("see Tanganyika Territory"), are widely spoken as lingua francas. They serve as working languages in the country, with Swahili being the official national language. There are more speakers of Swahili than

 The top five languages spoken in the United States, based on the information provided, are:

1. English (approximately 98.3% of the population)
2. Spanish (approximately 13.2% of the population)
3. Chinese (various dialects, including Mandarin, Cantonese, and others)
4. Tagalog (approximately 1.3% of the population)
5. Vietnamese (approximately 1.2% of the population)

These languages represent the largest non-English speaking populations in


Question: how old was aisha when prophet muhammad married her

Answer: six or seven

This is a document about Aisha
 traditional hadith sources state that Aisha was married to Muhammad at the age of six or seven, but she stayed in her parents' home until the age of nine, or ten according to Ibn Hisham, when the marriage was consummated with Muhammad, then 53, in Medina. This timeline has been challenged by a number of scholars in modern times. The Shia have a generally negative view of Aisha. They accuse her of hating Ali and defying him during his caliphate in the Battle of the Camel, when she fought men from Ali's army in Basra. Aisha was born 613 or

This is a document about Marriageable age
 set age for marriage, the condition is physical (bulugh) maturity and mental (rushd) maturity. So the age is variable. The Islamic Prophet Muhammad, who is said to serve as a role model (al-uswatu'l-hasana) for every Muslim, is reported by Sunni Hadith sources to have married Aisha when she was six or seven years old, with the marriage consummated when she was nine years old (or according to some sources ten years old) and he was 54 years old. Büchler and Schlater observe that ""marriageable age according to classical Islamic law coincides with the occurrence of puberty. The notion of puberty

This is a document about Aisha
 hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr; the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture. Aisha's age at the time of her marriage is frequently mentioned in Islamic literature. According to Sunni "hadith" sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when she was married to Muhammad in Mecca. The marriage was consummated after the Hegira to Medina, when she had reached the age of nine or ten years old. Many scholars interpret this to indicate that she reached puberty at this age. For example, Sahih al-Bukhari states that Aisha narrated that "the

This is a document about Child marriage
 Conferences of Bishops in specific countries. In Quran, the "age of marriage" coincides with puberty. Classical Islamic law (Sharia) does not have a marriageable age because there is no minimum age at which puberty can occur. In Islam there is no set age for marriage, the condition is physical (bulugh) maturity and mental (rushd) maturity. So the age is variable. The Prophet Muhammad, who is said to serve as a role model (qudwah hasanah) for every Muslim, is reported by Sunni Hadith sources to have married Aisha when she was six or seven years old, with the marriage not being

This is a document about Aisha
  and leading troops on the back of her camel. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination left a lasting impression. Because of her involvement in this battle, Shia Muslims have a generally negative view of Aisha. Afterward, she lived quietly in Medina for more than twenty years, took no part in politics, became reconciled to Ali and did not oppose caliph Mu'awiya. Some traditional hadith sources state that Aisha was betrothed to Muhammad at the age of 6 or 7; other sources say she was 9 when she had a small marriage ceremony; but both the date and her age at marriage and later consummation with Muhammad in Medina are sources of controversy and discussion amongst scholars.

This is a document about Muhammad's wives
  the marriage was consummated with Muhammad, then 53, in Medina. Aisha's age at marriage has been a source of controversy and debate, and some historians, Islamic scholars, and Muslim writers have challenged the previously-accepted timeline of her life. Both Aisha and Sawda, his two wives, were given apartments adjoined to the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi mosque. Aisha was extremely scholarly and inquisitive. Her contribution to the spread of Muhammad's message was extraordinary, and she served the Muslim community for 44 years after his death. She is also known for narrating 2210 hadith, not just on matters related to Muhammad's private life, but also on topics such as marriage, sex, Islamic inheritance, Hajj and Islamic eschatology, among other subjects. She was highly regarded for her intellect and knowledge in various fields, including poetry and medicine, which received plenty of praise by prominent historian Al-Zuhri and her student Urwa ibn al-Zubayr.

This is a document about Islamic marital jurisprudence
  under-age bride can leave her family's custody and be transferred to her husband's custody, if she has not yet reached puberty. Some evidence supporting both sides can be seen in the following narrations from Muhammad: Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 65 Narrated 'Aisha: that the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old. Hisham said: I have been informed that 'Aisha remained with the Prophet for nine years (i.e. till his death). Sahih Bukhari 7.18 Narrated 'Ursa: The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said

This is a document about Criticism of Islam
  showing that Aisha was not as young as the traditional sources claim, arguing that instead, a new interpretation of the Hadith compiled by Mishkat al-Masabih, Wali-ud-Din Muhammad ibn Abdullah Al-Khatib, could indicate that Aisha would have been nineteen years old around the time of her marriage. Colin Turner, a UK professor of Islamic studies, states that since such marriages between an older man and a young girl were customary among the Bedouins, Muhammad's marriage would not have been considered improper by his contemporaries. Karen Armstrong, the British author on comparative religion, has affirmed that "There was no impropriety in Muhammad's marriage to Aisha. Marriages conducted in absentia to seal an alliance were often contracted at this time between adults and minors who were even younger than Aisha."

This is a document about Muhammad in Mecca
  Sometime in 620, the year following the Year of Sorrow, Muhammad sent a proposal of marriage to Sawda bint Zam'a, an early convert to Islam. The proposal was accepted by both her and her father, Zam'a ibn Qays. Muhammad and Sawda were married in Ramadan of that year. Muhammad also married Aisha, a daughter of his friend and companion Abu Bakr, when she was somewhere between 6 to 9 years old, which has caused controversy in modern scholarly discussion. Both Sawda and Aisha would outlive Muhammad, dying around sometime between 642–672 and in 678, respectively. Aisha would narrate more than 2,200 hadiths in the 44 years she lived after Muhammad, covering several diverse topics, including inheritance, pilgrimage, eschatology and Muhammad's private life.

This is a document about Sawdah bint Zam'ah
  April–May 620), a few months after the death of Khadijah. According to Ibn Sa’d, Sawdah died in the year 54 after Hijra, If she lived to become an octogenarian she must have married Muhammad at the age of 27. If she reached the age of 90 then she could not have been older than 37 when she married the prophet who was 50 years old at that time. However there are sources that put her death in the year 644. Sawdah went to live in Muhammad's house and immediately took over the care of his daughters and household, while Aisha bint Abu Bakr became betrothed to him and remained in her father's house. There was great surprise in Mecca that Muhammad would choose

This is a document about Aisha
  than her. This has been combined with information about Asma's age at the time of her death and used to suggest that Aisha was over thirteen at the time of her marriage. Gibril Haddad criticizes this approach as relying on a single narrator, and notes that a hadith from the same narrator gives a broader range for the age difference between the sisters. Using reports on the birth year of Fatimah as a reference point, the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement scholar Muhammad Ali has estimated that Aisha was over ten years old at the time of marriage and over fifteen at the time of its consummation. Noting the

This is a document about Aisha
  joining their families together in marriage via Aisha. Leila Ahmed notes that Aisha's betrothal and marriage to Muhammad are presented as ordinary in Islamic literature, and may indicate that it was not unusual for children to be married to their elders in that era. Aisha's age at marriage has been a source of controversy and debate, and some historians, scholars, and writers have revisited the previously-accepted timeline of her life. Some writers have calculated Aisha's age based on details found in some biographies, eschewing the traditionally-accepted ahadith. One hadith recorded in the works of some medieval scholars, including al-Dhahabi, states that Aisha's older sister Asma was ten years

This is a document about Aisha
  of respect by different branches of the Islamic faith. Sunni, various branches of Shia (such as Ismaili and Twelver), Ibadi and Ahmadiyya Muslims all regard different sets of ahadith as "strong" or "weak" in the power of their evidence, depending on their perceived provenance. Aisha's age at the time of her marriage is frequently mentioned in Islamic literature. According to John Esposito, Aisha was married to Muhammad in Mecca in 624 CE, after Hegira to Medina and the Battle of Badr. Several scholars interpret this to indicate that she reached puberty at this age, although her age at the time is the subject of dispute. Al-Tabari says she

This is a document about Criticism of Islam
  According to scriptural Sunni's Hadith sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when she was married to Muhammad and nine when the marriage was consummated. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, born in Persia 200 years after Muhammmad's death, suggested that she was ten years old. Six hundred years after Muhammad, Ibn Khallikan recorded that she was nine years old at marriage, and twelve at consummation. Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi, born about 150 years after Muhammad's death, cited Hisham ibn Urwah as saying that she was nine years old at marriage, and twelve at consummation, but Hisham ibn Urwah's original source is otherwise unknown, and Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi's work does not have the high religious status of the Hadith. In the twentieth century, Indian writer Muhammad Ali challenged the

This is a document about Muhammad
  marriage. Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha's age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage. After migration to Medina, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more women. Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him. Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum

This is a document about Child marriage
  allows a father to contract a marriage for his underaged girl. Appropriate age for consummating the marriage, which could occur several years after signing the marriage contract, was to be determined by the bride, groom and the bride's guardian, since medieval jurists held that the age of fitness for intercourse was too variable for legislation. This was based in part on the precedent set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as described in the hadith collections considered to be authentic by Muslims. According to these sources, Muhammad married Aisha, his third wife, when she was about six, and consummated the

This is a document about Muṭʽim ibn ʽAdi
  Abu Bakr had initially engaged his daughter Aisha to Muṭim's son Jubayr ibn Muṭim some time between her birth in 613 and 619. When Muṭim was informed that Abu Bakr had adopted Islam, he no longer wished his son to marry ‘A’isha and that she was six years old when she Married Mohammad. Also we know Aisha was originally engaged to Jubayr but that in 619 the year after Khadijah, Mohammad's first wife died Mohammad married Aisha. Tradition also says that while Aisha was between six and seven when she married and 9 or 10 when this marriage was consummated.

This is a document about Criticism of Muhammad
  be judged by the standards of his own time and country rather than "by those of the most enlightened opinion in the West today." Karen Armstrong, the British author on comparative religion, has affirmed that "There was no impropriety in Muhammad's marriage to Aisha. Marriages conducted in absentia to seal an alliance were often contracted at this time between adults and minors who were even younger than Aisha. This practice continued in Europe well into the early modern period." Asma Barlas, a Pakistani-American academic, states that Muslims who calculate Aisha's age based on the more detailed information available about her sister Asma estimate that she was over 13 and perhaps between 17 and 19 at the time of her marriage.

This is a document about Juwayriya bint al-Harith
  She pleaded with the Prophet, to take notice of the pitiful and desperate condition in which she found herself. The Prophet, was moved by her sorrowful plea and asked her if she would like to live as a free woman and be part of his household if he paid her ransom. She had never in her dreams expected this offer. Moved deeply by this unexpected elevation in her status, she exclaimed she would be more than happy to accept." Some time later her father and all the men of her tribe who had been freed also accepted Islam as their religion. Consequently, she was married to Muhammad, the Islamic prophet when he was 58 years old and she was 20, thus placing the marriage in 627-628. After her marriage, it is mentioned that she was very pious and spent most of her time engrossed in prayer.

According to Islamic sources, Aisha was around six or seven years old when the Prophet Muhammad married her, but the consummation of the marriage is reported to have taken place when she was nine or ten years old.


Question: how many episodes did the original star trek have

Answer: 79

This is a document about Star Trek: The Original Series
 credits stated the starship's purpose: The series was produced from September 1966 to December 1967 by Norway Productions and Desilu Productions, and by Paramount Television from January 1968 to June 1969. "Star Trek" aired on NBC from September 8, 1966, to June 3, 1969, and was actually seen first on September 6, 1966, on Canada's CTV network. "Star Trek"s Nielsen ratings while on NBC were low, and the network canceled it after three seasons and 79 episodes. Several years later, the series became a bona fide hit in broadcast syndication, remaining so throughout the 1970s, achieving cult classic status and

This is a document about Star Trek spin-off fiction
 original novels, short stories, and television and movie adaptations have been published. The first original "Star Trek" novel to be published was "Mission to Horatius" by Mack Reynolds, which was published in hardcover by Whitman Books in 1968. Geared for younger readers, the novel became a collectible and in the 1990s, Pocket Books issued a facsimile edition. The first publisher of "Star Trek" fiction aimed at adult readers was Bantam Books, which initially produced a bestselling series of novelizations of the original 79 episodes by James Blish that began in 1967. Later adaptations were done by Blish's wife, J. A.

This is a document about The City on the Edge of Forever
 the all-time great moments in "Star Trek" history". "The City on the Edge of Forever" has placed highly in many "best of" lists of "Star Trek" episodes. In a special edition of "Entertainment Weekly" during the fall of 1994, "The City on the Edge of Forever" was ranked number one in a comprehensive listing of all 79 episodes. The article described the episode as "Cosmic themes, effective acting, and a heart-wrenching ending makes this the undisputed Uber-"Trek"". IGN ranked it as number one out of their "Top 10 Classic "Star Trek" Episodes" in 2009. It said "This beautiful story poignantly

This is a document about Star Trek
 producer for the show's third and final season. Despite another letter-writing campaign, NBC cancelled the series after three seasons and 79 episodes. After the original series was cancelled, Paramount Studios, which had bought the series from Desilu, licensed the broadcast syndication rights to help recoup the production losses. Reruns began in the fall of 1969 and by the late 1970s the series aired in over 150 domestic and 60 international markets. This helped "Star Trek" develop a cult following greater than its popularity during its original run. One sign of the series' growing popularity was the first "Star Trek" convention

This is a document about Star Trek: The Original Series
 recorded a jazz fusion version of the tune with his big band during the late 1970s, and Nichelle Nichols performed the song live complete with lyrics. For budgetary reasons, this series made significant use of "tracked" music, or music written for other episodes that was reused in later episodes. Of the 79 episodes that were broadcast, only 31 had complete or partial original dramatic underscores created specifically for them. The remainder of the music in any episode was tracked from other episodes and from cues recorded for the music library. Which episodes would have new music was mostly the decision

This is a document about 100 episodes
  episodes had been produced by the time the series ended in 1999. Chappelle's Show entered syndication despite only producing 33 episodes, five of which were clip shows. Series which have entered the public domain, such as Dusty's Trail, Meet Corliss Archer, and Life with Elizabeth are sometimes aired regardless of the number of episodes because there is no licensing fee. Dramas, which do not require daily runs, have also had success in syndication with shorter runs. For example, Lost in Space ceased production in 1968 after 84 episodes because of declining ratings, but did well in syndication for a number of years. The original Star Trek series had only 79 episodes

This is a document about Outline of Star Trek
  The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Star Trek: Star Trek is an American science fiction entertainment franchise, created by Gene Roddenberry, which started in 1966 with the television series Star Trek (now known as Star Trek: The Original Series). With spin-offs, the franchise now includes twelve television series (nine live action, and three animated) totalling 814 episodes across 38 television seasons, as well as 13 feature films. The Star Trek franchise also includes a large number of novels, comic books, video games and other materials, which are generally considered non-canon.

This is a document about List of Star Trek: The Original Series episodes
  Created by Gene Roddenberry, the science fiction television series Star Trek (which eventually acquired the retronym Star Trek: The Original Series) starred William Shatner as Captain James T. Kirk, Leonard Nimoy as Mr. Spock, and DeForest Kelley as Dr. Leonard "Bones" McCoy aboard the fictional Federation starship USS Enterprise. The series originally aired from September 1966 through June 1969 on NBC. This is the first television series in the Star Trek franchise, and comprises 79 regular episodes over the series' three seasons, along with the series' original pilot episode, "The Cage". The episodes are listed in order by original air date, which match the episode order in each season's original,  remastered,   and Blu-ray DVD box sets. The original, single-disc DVD releases placed the episodes by production order, with "The Cage" on the final disc. After the series' cancellation, Paramount Television released Star Trek to television stations as a syndication

This is a document about Mirror, Mirror (Star Trek: The Original Series)
  the original Star Trek. In 2015, New York Public Library noted this episode as having Spock's fifth best scene in the show. In a 2016 article highlighting the best episode from each Star Trek series, Digital Trends gave "Mirror, Mirror" an honorable mention. In 2016, Business Insider ranked "Mirror, Mirror" the 6th best episode of the original series. In 2016, IGN ranked "Mirror, Mirror" number 3 in a top ten list of original series episodes. Empire ranked "Mirror, Mirror" 12th out of the 50 top episodes of all Star Trek in 2016. At that time, there were roughly 726 episodes and a dozen films released.

This is a document about Comparison of Star Trek and Star Wars
  Star Trek was introduced in 1966 as a live-action television series and lasted three years with just 79 episodes. Star Trek: The Animated Series premiered in 1973 and lasted two seasons with 22 episodes. With the subsequent publication of novels, comics, animated series, toys, and feature films, Star Trek grew into a popular media franchise. Star Wars was introduced as a feature film, Star Wars (1977). A novelization titled Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker, based on the original script, was published about a year earlier. Upon the release of the first film, Star Wars grew into a popular media franchise.

This is a document about Star Trek: Discovery
  suggested he create a single serialized show to see how that performed first, and Fuller began further developing the concept of a prequel to The Original Series. Fuller announced in June 2016 that the first season would consist of 13 episodes, though he would prefer to produce 10 episodes a season moving forward. A month later, Fuller announced the series' title to be Star Trek: Discovery, and revealed that it would be set in the "Prime Timeline" (which includes the previous Star Trek series, but not the modern reboot films) to keep the concurrent series and films separate, so "we don't have to track anything [happening

This is a document about Star Trek: The Original Series
  the syndicated episodes. In addition to introductory and post-episode commentary by Shatner, the episodes included interviews with members of the regular production team and cast, writers, guest stars, and critics (titled as "Star Trek Insights"). The episodes were broadcast in the original broadcast sequence, followed by "The Cage", to which a full 105-minute segment was devoted. (For details on each episode's original airdate, see List of Star Trek: The Original Series episodes.) Leonard Nimoy hosted a second run from December 28, 1998 to March 24, 1999, but not all the episodes were broadcast because the show was abruptly cancelled before completion.

This is a document about Star Trek: The Original Series
   NBC ordered 16 episodes of Star Trek, besides "Where No Man Has Gone Before". The first regular episode of Star Trek, "The Man Trap", aired on Thursday, September 8, 1966, from 8:30 to 9:30 as part of an NBC "sneak preview" block. Reviews were mixed; while The Philadelphia Inquirer and San Francisco Chronicle liked the new show, The New York Times and The Boston Globe were less favorable, and Variety predicted that it "won't work", calling it "an incredible and dreary mess of confusion and complexities". Debuting against mostly reruns, Star Trek easily won its time slot with a 40.6 share. The following week against new programming, however, the show fell to second (29.4 share) behind CBS. It ranked 33rd (out of 94 programs)

This is a document about List of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episodes
  Star Trek: Deep Space Nine is the third live-action television series in the Star Trek franchise and aired in syndication from January 1993 through June 1999. There were a total of 176 episodes over the show's seven seasons, which are listed here in chronological order by original airdate, which match the episode order in each season's DVD set. The first episode, "Emissary"; the fourth season premiere, "The Way of the Warrior"; and the series finale, "What You Leave Behind", originally aired as two-hour presentations, but were subsequently aired as sets of two one-hour episodes in reruns.

This is a document about Star Trek: The Motion Picture
  The original Star Trek television series ran for three seasons from 1966 to 1969 on NBC. The show was never a hit with network executives, and due to low Nielsen ratings, the show was cancelled after the third season. When the show was canceled, owner Paramount Pictures hoped to recoup their production losses by selling the syndication rights. The series went into reruns in the autumn (September/October) of 1969, and by the late 1970s had been sold in over 150 domestic and 60 international markets. The show developed a cult following, and rumors of reviving the franchise began. The series’ creator Gene Roddenberry had first proposed

This is a document about Star Trek: The Original Series
  commented in 1977 that the show "threatens to rerun until the universe crawls back into its little black hole". By 1986, 17 years after entering syndication, Star Trek was the most popular syndicated series; by 1987, Paramount made $1 million from each episode; and by 1994, the reruns still aired in 94% of the United States. From September 1 to December 24, 1998, the Sci-Fi Channel broadcast a "Special Edition" of all the original series episodes in an expanded 90-minute format hosted by William Shatner. Now titled Star Trek: The Original Series, these broadcasts restored scenes that had been edited out

This is a document about Star Trek
  23rd century, on a mission "to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before". In creating Star Trek, Roddenberry was inspired by C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower series of novels, Jonathan Swift 1726 novel Gulliver's Travels, the 1956 film Forbidden Planet, and television westerns such as Wagon Train. The Star Trek canon includes the Original Series, nine spin-off television series, and a film franchise; further adaptations also exist in several media. After the conclusion of the Original Series, the adventures of its characters continued in the 22-episode Star Trek: The Animated Series and six feature films. A television revival beginning in the 1980s saw three sequel series and a prequel:

This is a document about The West Point Story (TV series)
  Gene Roddenberry wrote all or part of ten to twelve of the 39 episodes. Sources differ as to which episodes he should be credited with.

This is a document about Star Trek: The Original Series (season 3)
  The third and final season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek, premiered on NBC on Friday, September 20, 1968 and concluded on Tuesday, June 3, 1969. It consisted of twenty-four episodes. Star Trek: The Original Series is an American science fiction television series produced by Fred Freiberger, and created by Gene Roddenberry, and the original series of the Star Trek franchise. It features William Shatner as Captain James T. Kirk, Leonard Nimoy as Spock and DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy.

This is a document about Science fiction
  later TV science fiction. Other programs in the 1960s included The Outer Limits (1963-1965), Lost in Space (1965-1968), and The Prisoner (1967). Star Trek (the original series), created by Gene Roddenberry, premiered in 1966 on NBC Television and ran for three seasons. It combined elements of space opera and Space Western. Only mildly successful at first, the series gained popularity through syndication and extraordinary fan interest. It became a very popular and influential franchise with many films, television shows, novels, and other works and products. Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987-1994) led to four additional Star Trek shows (Deep Space 9 (1993-1999), Voyager (1995-2001), Enterprise (2001-2005), and Discovery (2017–present))--with more in some

The original Star Trek series had 79 episodes produced for the third season, in addition to the 79 episodes produced for the first and second seasons. Therefore, the original Star Trek series had a total of 158 episodes.


Question: list the structures of the nephron where filtration occurs

Answer: endothelial cells

This is a document about Nephron
 Nephron The nephron (from Greek νεφρός – nephros, meaning "kidney") is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule. The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen. A healthy adult has 0.8 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney. Blood is filtered as it passes through three layers: the endothelial cells of the capillary wall, its basement

This is a document about Nephron
 well as levels of many body substances. At the end of the tubule, the remaining fluid—urine—exits: it is composed of water, metabolic waste, and toxins. The interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space, collects the filtrate from the filtering capillaries of the glomerular tuft, which also contains mesangial cells supporting these capillaries. These components function as the filtration unit and make up the renal corpuscle. The filtering structure (glomerular filtration barrier) has three layers composed of endothelial cells, a basement membrane, and podocytes (foot processes). The tubule has five anatomically and functionally different parts: the proximal tubule, which has a

This is a document about Renal corpuscle
 Renal corpuscle A renal corpuscle is the blood-filtering component of the nephron of the kidney. It consists of a glomerulus - a tuft of capillaries composed of endothelial cells, and a glomerular capsule known as Bowman's capsule. The renal corpuscle is composed of two structures, the glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus is a small tuft of capillaries containing two cell types. Endothelial cells, which have large fenestrae, are not covered by diaphragms. Mesangial cells are modified smooth muscle cells that lie between the capillaries. They regulate blood flow by their contractile activity and secrete extracellular matrix, prostaglandins, and

This is a document about Osmoregulation
 filtration – fluid portion of blood (plasma) is filtered from a nephron (functional unit of vertebrate kidney) structure known as the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule or glomerular capsule (in the kidney's cortex) and flows down the proximal convoluted tubule to a "u-turn" called the Loop of Henle (loop of the nephron) in the medulla portion of the kidney. ; reabsorption – most of the viscous glomerular filtrate is returned to blood vessels that surround the convoluted tubules. ; secretion – the remaining fluid becomes urine, which travels down collecting ducts to the medullary region of the kidney. ; excretion – the urine (in mammals) is stored in the urinary bladder and exits via the urethra; in other vertebrates, the urine mixes with other wastes in the cloaca before leaving the body (frogs also have a urinary bladder). Four processes occur:

This is a document about Renal physiology
  The blood is filtered by nephrons, the functional units of the kidney. Each nephron begins in a renal corpuscle, which is composed of a glomerulus enclosed in a Bowman's capsule. Cells, proteins, and other large molecules are filtered out of the glomerulus by a process of ultrafiltration, leaving an ultrafiltrate that resembles plasma (except that the ultrafiltrate has negligible plasma proteins) to enter Bowman's space. Filtration is driven by Starling forces. The ultrafiltrate is passed through, in turn, the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and a series of collecting ducts to form urine.

This is a document about Nephron
  The nephron uses four mechanisms to convert blood into urine: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion. These apply to numerous substances. The structure and function of the epithelial cells lining the lumen change during the course of the nephron, and have segments named by their location and which reflects their different functions.

This is a document about Nephron
  ascending loop of Henle ("ascending loop"); the distal convoluted tubule ("distal loop"); the connecting tubule, and the last part of nephron the collecting ducts. Nephrons have two lengths with different urine concentrating capacities: long juxtamedullary nephrons and short cortical nephrons. The four mechanisms used to create and process the filtrate (the result of which is to convert blood to urine) are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion. Filtration or ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus and is largely passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the

This is a document about Nephron
  waste, and toxins. The interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space, collects the filtrate from the filtering capillaries of the glomerular tuft, which also contains mesangial cells supporting these capillaries. These components function as the filtration unit and make up the renal corpuscle. The filtering structure (glomerular filtration barrier) has three layers composed of endothelial cells, a basement membrane, and podocytes (foot processes). The tubule has five anatomically and functionally different parts: the proximal tubule, which has a convoluted section the proximal convoluted tubule followed by a straight section (proximal straight tubule); the loop of Henle, which has two parts, the descending loop of Henle ("descending loop") and

This is a document about Organ-on-a-chip
  The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and is composed of a glomerulus and a tubular component. Researchers at MIT claim to have designed a bioartificial device that replicates the function of the nephron's glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule and loop of Henle. Each part of the device has its unique design, generally consisting of two microfabricated layers separated by a membrane. The only inlet to the microfluidic device is designed for the entering blood sample. In the glomerulus’ section of the nephron, the membrane allows certain blood particles through its wall of capillary cells, composed by the endothelium, basement membrane and the epithelial podocytes. The fluid that is filtered from the

This is a document about Nephron
  tubule ; Connecting tubule The renal tubule is long pipe like structure containing the tubular fluid filtered through the glomerulus. After passing through the renal tubule, the filtrate continues to the collecting duct system. The components of the renal tubule are: Blood from the efferent arteriole, containing everything that was not filtered out in the glomerulus, moves into the peritubular capillaries, tiny blood vessels that surround the loop of Henle and the proximal and distal tubules, where the tubular fluid flows. Substances then reabsorb from the latter back to the blood stream. The peritubular capillaries then recombine to form an efferent venule, which combines with efferent venules from other nephrons into the renal vein, and rejoins the main bloodstream.

This is a document about Renal corpuscle
  The renal corpuscle acts to filter blood. Fluid from blood in the glomerulus is collected in the Bowman's capsule to form "glomerular filtrate", which is then further processed along the nephron to form urine. It does this via a filtration barrier. The renal corpuscle filtration barrier is composed of: the fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries, the fused basal lamina of endothelial cells and podocytes, and the filtration slits of the podocytes. This barrier permits passage of water, ions, and small molecules from the bloodstream into Bowman's space (the space between the visceral and parietal layers). Large and/or negatively charged proteins

This is a document about Nephron
  The nephron is the minute or microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and a cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule. The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen. A healthy adult has 1 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney. Blood is filtered as it passes through three layers: the endothelial cells of the capillary wall, its basement membrane, and between the foot processes of the podocytes of the lining

This is a document about Renal physiology
   Renal physiology (Latin rēnēs, "kidneys") is the study of the physiology of the kidney. This encompasses all functions of the kidney, including maintenance of acid-base balance; regulation of fluid balance; regulation of sodium, potassium, and other electrolytes; clearance of toxins; absorption of glucose, amino acids, and other small molecules; regulation of blood pressure; production of various hormones, such as erythropoietin; and activation of vitamin D. Much of renal physiology is studied at the level of the nephron, the smallest functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron begins with a filtration component that filters the blood entering the kidney. This filtrate then flows along the length of the nephron, which is

This is a document about Bowman's capsule
 The vascular pole is the side with the afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole. ; The urinary pole is the side with the proximal convoluted tubule. Parietal layer—A single layer of simple squamous epithelium. Does not function in filtration. ; Bowman's space (or "urinary space", or "capsular space")—Between the visceral and parietal layers, into which the filtrate enters after passing through the filtration slits. ; Visceral layer—Lies just above the thickened glomerular basement membrane and is made of podocytes. Beneath the visceral layer lie the glomerular capillaries. ; Filtration barrier—The filtration barrier is composed of the fenestrated endothelium of the glomerular capillaries, the fused basal lamina of the endothelial cells and podocytes, and the filtration slits of the podocytes. The barrier permits

This is a document about Renal medulla
  Henle, through the distal tubule and finally leaves the kidney by means of the collecting duct, leading to the renal pelvis, the dilated portion of the ureter. The renal medulla (Latin: medulla renis 'marrow of the kidney') contains the structures of the nephrons responsible for maintaining the salt and water balance of the blood. These structures include the vasa rectae (both spuria and vera), the venulae rectae, the medullary capillary plexus, the loop of Henle, and the collecting tubule. The renal medulla is hypertonic to the filtrate in the nephron and aids in the reabsorption of water. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus by solute size. Ions such as sodium, chloride, potassium, and calcium are easily filtered, as is glucose. Proteins

This is a document about Assessment of kidney function
  The functions of the kidney include maintenance of acid-base balance; regulation of fluid balance; regulation of sodium, potassium, and other electrolytes; clearance of toxins; absorption of glucose, amino acids, and other small molecules; regulation of blood pressure; production of various hormones, such as erythropoietin; and activation of vitamin D. Much of renal physiology is studied at the level of the nephron, the smallest functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron begins with a filtration component that filters the blood entering the kidney. This filtrate then flows along the length of the nephron, which is a tubular structure lined by a single layer

This is a document about Kidney
  The functional substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid. Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns. Nephrons, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle, which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex,

This is a document about Glycosuria
  Blood is filtered by millions of nephrons, the functional units that comprise the kidneys. In each nephron, blood flows from the arteriole into the glomerulus, a tuft of leaky capillaries. The Bowman's capsule surrounds each glomerulus, and collects the filtrate that the glomerulus forms. The filtrate contains waste products (e.g. urea), electrolytes (e.g. sodium, potassium, chloride), amino acids, and glucose. The filtrate passes into the renal tubules of the kidney. In the first part of the renal tubule, the proximal tubule, glucose is reabsorbed from the filtrate, across the tubular epithelium and into the bloodstream. The proximal tubule can only reabsorb a limited amount of glucose (~375 mg/min ), known as the transport

This is a document about Kidney
  The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped organs found in vertebrates. They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about 12 cm in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder. The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluids, fluid osmolality, acid–base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium

The filtration occurs in the glomerulus, which is a part of the renal corpuscle in the nephron. The glomerulus consists of a tuft of capillaries and the Bowman's capsule, which forms the glomerular capsule. The endothelial cells of the capillaries have large fenestrations that allow for the filtration of blood into the Bowman's space.


Question: what is the process that allows liquid water to return to the earth from the atmosphere

Answer: Evaporation

This is a document about Water cycle
 ("see adjacent table"). It is a measure of the average age of the water in that reservoir. Groundwater can spend over 10,000 years beneath Earth's surface before leaving. Particularly old groundwater is called fossil water. Water stored in the soil remains there very briefly, because it is spread thinly across the Earth, and is readily lost by evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, or groundwater recharge. After evaporating, the residence time in the atmosphere is about 9 days before condensing and falling to the Earth as precipitation. The major ice sheets – Antarctica and Greenland – store ice for very long periods.

This is a document about Lakes of Titan
 so quickly that the ground must have been damp, and one image shows light reflected by a dewdrop as it falls across the camera's field of view. On Titan, the feeble sunlight allows only about one centimeter of evaporation per year (versus one meter of water on Earth), but the atmosphere can hold the equivalent of about 10 meters (28') of liquid before rain forms (versus about 2 cm [25/32"] on Earth). So Titan's weather is expected to feature downpours of several meters (15-20') causing flash floods, interspersed by decades or centuries of drought (whereas typical weather on Earth includes

This is a document about Atmosphere of Venus
 and downwell. Unlike Earth, Venus lacks a magnetic field. Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind. This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field, giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment. This is considered Venus's "induced magnetosphere". Lighter gases, including water vapour, are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail. It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface. A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface

This is a document about Day length fluctuations
 non gaseous parts of the earth is evaporation and precipitation. Massive quantities of water are in continual flux between the oceans and the atmosphere. As the mass of water (vapour) rises its rotation must slow due to conservation of angular momentum. Equally when if falls as rain, its rate of rotation will increase to conserve angular momentum. Any net global transfer of water mass from oceans to the atmosphere or the opposite implies a change in the speed of rotation of the solid/liquid Earth which will be reflected in LOD. Observational evidence shows that there is no significant time delay

This is a document about Huygens (spacecraft)
 ground must have been damp, and one image shows light reflected by a dewdrop as it falls across the camera's field of view. On Titan, the feeble sunlight allows only about one centimeter of evaporation per year (versus one meter of water on Earth), but the atmosphere can hold the equivalent of about 10 meters of liquid before rain forms vs. only a few centimeters on Earth. So Titan's weather is expected to feature torrential downpours causing flash floods, interspersed by decades or centuries of drought. "Huygens" found the brightness of the surface of Titan (at time of landing) to

This is a document about Water vapor
 which precipitate when they reach a critical mass. The water content of the atmosphere as a whole is constantly depleted by precipitation. At the same time it is constantly replenished by evaporation, most prominently from seas, lakes, rivers, and moist earth. Other sources of atmospheric water include combustion, respiration, volcanic eruptions, the transpiration of plants, and various other biological and geological processes. The mean global content of water vapor in the atmosphere is roughly sufficient to cover the surface of the planet with a layer of liquid water about 25 mm deep. The mean annual precipitation for the planet is

This is a document about Formation and evolution of the Solar System
 the Sun's increased radiation output, will cause its circumstellar habitable zone will move outwards, making the Earth's surface too hot for liquid water to exist there naturally. At this point, all life will be reduced to single celled organisms. Evaporation of water, a potent greenhouse gas, from the oceans' surface could accelerate temperature increase, potentially ending all life on Earth even sooner. During this time, it is possible that as Mars's surface temperature gradually rises, carbon dioxide and water currently frozen under the surface regolith will release into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that will heat the planet until

This is a document about Primary production
 by the processes of photosynthesis (see above) and transpiration. The latter process (which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants. Transpiration allows plants to transport water and mineral nutrients from the soil to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of water vapour out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is regulated by structures known as stomata. These structure also regulate the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing stomata) also decreases carbon

This is a document about Water cycle
  water vapor directly to ice. ; Advection: The movement of water through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land. ; Condensation: The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog. ; Transpiration: The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. ; Percolation: Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity. ; Plate tectonics: Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface via volcanism.  The water cycle involves many of these processes.

This is a document about Water vapor
  Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the atmosphere. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is less dense than most of the other constituents of air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds. Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it is particularly abundant in Earth's atmosphere, where it acts as a greenhouse gas and warming feedback, contributing more

This is a document about Water vapor
  the form of rain or snow. The now heavier cold and dry air sinks down to ground as well; the atmospheric thermodynamic engine thus establishes a vertical convection, which transports heat from the ground into the upper atmosphere, where the water molecules can radiate it to outer space. Due to the earth’s rotation and the resulting Coriolis forces, this vertical atmospheric convection is also converted into a horizontal convection, in the form of cyclones and anticyclones, which transport the water evaporated over the oceans into the interior of the continents, enabling vegetation to grow. Water in Earth's atmosphere is not merely below its boiling point (100 °C), but

This is a document about Extraterrestrial liquid water
  liquid water is essential to all known life forms on Earth. The presence of water on the surface of Earth is a product of its atmospheric pressure and a stable orbit in the Sun's circumstellar habitable zone, though the origin of Earth's water remains unknown. The main methods currently used for confirmation are absorption spectroscopy and geochemistry. These techniques have proven effective for atmospheric water vapour and ice. However, using current methods of astronomical spectroscopy it is substantially more difficult to detect liquid water on terrestrial planets, especially in the case of subsurface water. Due to this, astronomers, astrobiologists and

This is a document about Hydrosphere
   The water cycle refers to the transfer of water from one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs include atmospheric moisture (snow, rain and clouds), streams, oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar ice caps and saturated soil. Solar energy, in the form of heat and light (insolation), and gravity cause the transfer from one state to another over periods from hours to thousands of years. Most evaporation comes from the oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or rain. Sublimation refers to evaporation from snow and ice. Transpiration refers to the expiration of water through the minute pores or stomata of trees. Evapotranspiration is

This is a document about Tader Valles
  of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.

This is a document about Subsurface flow
  Subsurface water may return to the surface in groundwater flow, such as from a spring, seep, or a water well, or subsurface return to streams, rivers, and oceans. Water returns to the land surface at a lower elevation than where infiltration occurred, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years. Mainly, water flows through the ground which leads to the ocean where the cycle begins again.

This is a document about Marine biogeochemical cycles
   Deep cycling involves the exchange of materials with the mantle. The deep water cycle involves exchange of water with the mantle, with water carried down by subducting oceanic plates and returning through volcanic activity, distinct from the water cycle process that occurs above and on the surface of Earth. Some of the water makes it all the way to the lower mantle and may even reach the outer core. In the conventional view of the water cycle (also known as the hydrologic cycle), water moves between reservoirs in the atmosphere and Earth's surface or near-surface (including the ocean, rivers and lakes, glaciers and polar ice

This is a document about Rain
   Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation. The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such

This is a document about Water
 evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into the air and transpiration from land plants and animals into the air. ; precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to the earth or ocean. ; runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.  The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the continuous exchange of water within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting of the following transfer processes: Most water vapors found mostly in the ocean returns to it, but winds carry water vapor over land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 47 Tt

This is a document about Eridania quadrangle
  water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When Mars is at its greatest tilt or obliquity, up to 2 cm of ice could be removed from the summer ice cap and deposited at midlatitudes. This movement of water could last for several thousand years

This is a document about Arcadia quadrangle
  water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When Mars is at its greatest tilt or obliquity, up to 2 cm of ice could be removed from the summer ice cap and deposited at midlatitudes. This movement of water could last for several thousand years

The process involves water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere condensing to form clouds, which then release precipitation (rain or snow) when the clouds reach the Earth's surface. This precipitation then flows into bodies of water, such as oceans, lakes, or rivers, where it can be used by plants and animals or evaporate back into the atmosphere. The water cycle is driven by the unequal heating of the Earth's surface and the transfer of energy between the solid, liquid, and gaseous states of water.


Question: where are protons pumped in electron transport chain

Answer: across the mitochondrial inner membrane

This is a document about Electron transport chain
 chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH) to a terminal electron acceptor (O) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: "I", "III", and "IV". The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase. The reactions catalyzed by "Complex I" and "Complex III" work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the

This is a document about Chemiosmosis
  the protons H+ move without a counterion, such as chloride Cl−). In most cases the proton-motive force is generated by an electron transport chain which acts as a proton pump, using the Gibbs free energy of redox reactions to pump protons (hydrogen ions) out across the membrane, separating the charge across the membrane. In mitochondria, energy released by the electron transport chain is used to move protons from the mitochondrial matrix (N side) to the intermembrane space (P side). Moving the protons out of the mitochondrion creates a lower concentration of positively charged protons inside it, resulting in excess negative charge on the inside of

This is a document about Electrochemical gradient
  The generation of a transmembrane electrical potential through ion movement across a cell membrane drives biological processes like nerve conduction, muscle contraction, hormone secretion, and sensory processes. By convention, a typical animal cell has a transmembrane electrical potential of -50 mV to -70 mV inside the cell relative to the outside. Electrochemical gradients also play a role in establishing proton gradients in oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. The final step of cellular respiration is the electron transport chain. Four complexes embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion make up the electron transport chain. However, only complexes I, III, and IV pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space (IMS). In total, there are ten protons translocated from the matrix

This is a document about Electron transport chain
  The electron transport chain (ETC; respiratory chain ) is a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane. The electron transport chain is built up of peptides, enzymes, and other molecules. The flow of electrons through the electron transport chain is an exergonic process. The energy from the redox reactions creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In aerobic respiration, the flow of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen being the final electron acceptor. In anaerobic respiration, other electron acceptors are used, such as

This is a document about Oxidative phosphorylation
  chain to the ATP synthase by movements of protons across this membrane, in a process called chemiosmosis. A current of protons is driven from the negative N-side of the membrane to the positive P-side through the proton-pumping enzymes of the electron transport chain. The movement of protons creates an electrochemical gradient across the membrane, which is often called the proton-motive force. It has two components: a difference in proton concentration (a H+ gradient, ΔpH) and a difference in electric potential, with the N-side having a negative charge. ATP synthase releases this stored energy by completing the circuit and allowing protons to flow down the

This is a document about Cellular respiration
  proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H+ / 1 NADH+H+ (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H+ / 1 FADH2 (2 + 4). ; So the final stoichiometry is ; 1 NADH+H+ : 10 H+ : 10/4 ATP = 1 NADH+H+ : 2.5 ATP ; 1 FADH2 : 6 H+ : 6/4 ATP = 1 FADH2 : 1.5 ATP ; ATP : NADH+H+ coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is ; 1.5, as for FADH2, if hydrogen atoms (2H++2e−) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ; 2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen

This is a document about Proton pump
  The F-type proton ATPase is a multisubunit enzyme of the F-type (also referred to as ATP synthase or FOF1 ATPase). It is found in the mitochondrial inner membrane where it functions as a proton transport-driven ATP synthase. In mitochondria, reducing equivalents provided by electron transfer or photosynthesis power this translocation of protons. For example, the translocation of protons by cytochrome c oxidase is powered by reducing equivalents provided by reduced cytochrome c. ATP itself powers this transport in the plasma membrane proton ATPase and in the ATPase proton pumps of other cellular membranes. The FoF1 ATP synthase of mitochondria, in contrast, usually conduct protons from high to low concentration across the

This is a document about Hydrogen potassium ATPase
  cell, activating a cAMP-dependent pathway which causes the enzyme to move from the cytoplasmic tubular membranes to deeply folded canaliculi of the stimulated parietal cell. Once localized, the enzyme alternates between two conformations, E1 and E2, to transport ions across the membrane. The E1 conformation binds a phosphate from ATP and hydronium ion on the cytoplasmic side. The enzyme then changes to the E2 conformation, allowing hydronium to be released in the lumen. The E2 conformation binds potassium, and reverts to the E1 conformation to release phosphate and K+ into the cytoplasm where another ATP can be hydrolyzed to repeat the cycle. The β subunit prevents the E2-P conformation from reverting to the E1-P conformation, making proton pumping unidirectional. The number of ions transported per ATP varies from 2H+/2K+ to 1H+/1K+depending on the pH of the stomach.

This is a document about Adenosine triphosphate
  producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion's interior store of NAD+. A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space. In oxidative phosphorylation, the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the electron transport chain releases the chemical energy of O2 to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space. This pumping generates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Flow of protons down this potential gradient – that is, from the intermembrane space to the matrix – yields ATP by ATP

This is a document about Oxidative phosphorylation
  The electron transport chain carries both protons and electrons, passing electrons from donors to acceptors, and transporting protons across a membrane. These processes use both soluble and protein-bound transfer molecules. In mitochondria, electrons are transferred within the intermembrane space by the water-soluble electron transfer protein cytochrome c. This carries only electrons, and these are transferred by the reduction and oxidation of an iron atom that the protein holds within a heme group in its structure. Cytochrome c is also found in some bacteria, where it is located within the periplasmic space. Within the inner mitochondrial membrane, the lipid-soluble electron carrier coenzyme Q10 (Q) carries both electrons and protons by a redox cycle. This small benzoquinone

This is a document about Electron transport chain
  A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle). Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc1 is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (not in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc1 is similar to mitochondrial bc1 (Complex III).

This is a document about Electron transport chain
  (cytochrome bc1 complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to release the energy of molecular oxygen as it is reduced to water. Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain can be summarized as follows: NADH+H+ → Complex I → Q ↑    Complex II  ↑    Succinate                                → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV  → H2O ↑                   Complex II  ↑                   Succinate

This is a document about Crista
   NADH is oxidized into NAD+, H+ ions, and electrons by an enzyme. FADH2 is also oxidized into H+ ions, electrons, and FAD. As those electrons travel farther through the electron transport chain in the inner membrane, energy is gradually released and used to pump the hydrogen ions from the splitting of NADH and FADH2 into the space between the inner membrane and the outer membrane (called the intermembrane space), creating an electrochemical gradient. This electrochemical gradient creates potential energy (see ) across the inner mitochondrial membrane known as the proton-motive force. As a result, chemiosmosis occurs, and the enzyme ATP synthase produces ATP from ADP and a phosphate

This is a document about Electron transport chain
  Energy associated with the transfer of electrons down the electron transport chain is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex

This is a document about Proton pump
  and action potential formation. In cell respiration, the proton pump uses energy to transport protons from the matrix of the mitochondrion to the inter-membrane space. It is an active pump that generates a proton concentration gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane because there are more protons outside the matrix than inside. The difference in pH and electric charge (ignoring differences in buffer capacity) creates an electrochemical potential difference that works similar to that of a battery or energy storing unit for the cell. The process could also be seen as analogous to cycling uphill or charging a battery for later use, as it produces potential energy. The proton pump does not create energy, but forms a gradient that stores energy for later use.

This is a document about Proton pump
  The energy required for the proton pumping reaction may come from light (light energy; bacteriorhodopsins), electron transfer (electrical energy; electron transport complexes I, III and IV) or energy-rich metabolites (chemical energy) such as pyrophosphate (PPi; proton-pumping pyrophosphatase) or adenosine triphosphate (ATP; proton ATPases).

This is a document about Metabolism
  In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane. These proteins use the energy released by oxygen as it receives electrons from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane. Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP.

This is a document about Mitochondrial membrane transport protein
  Cytochrome c reductase, also known as complex III, is the second protein in the respiratory chain. It pumps electrons from complex I, through succinate dehydrogenase (complex II) to cytochrome c (complex IV). Complex III and IV are proton pumps, pumping H+ protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, and work in conjunction with complex I to create the proton gradient found at the inner membrane. Cytochrome c is and electron carrier protein that travels between complex III and IV, and triggers apoptosis if it leaves the cristae. Complex IV passes electrons to oxygen, the final acceptor in the mitochondrial electron transport chain.

This is a document about Electron transport chain
  membrane. The energy released by the reaction of oxygen with reduced compounds such as cytochrome c and (indirectly) NADH and FADH is used by the electron transport chain to pump protons into the intermembrane space, generating the electrochemical gradient over the inner mitochondrial membrane. In photosynthetic eukaryotes, the electron transport chain is found on the thylakoid membrane. Here, light energy drives the reduction of components of the electron transport chain and therefore causes subsequent synthesis of ATP. In bacteria, the electron transport chain can vary over species but it always constitutes a set of redox reactions that are coupled to the synthesis of ATP, through the generation of an electrochemical gradient, and oxidative phosphorylation through ATP synthase.

This is a document about Mitochondrion
   The electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to oxygen (O2), an energy-rich molecule, and hydrogen (protons) in several steps via the electron transport chain. NADH and FADH2 molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis. Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle. Protein complexes in the inner membrane (NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone), cytochrome c reductase, and cytochrome c oxidase) perform the transfer, and the incremental release of energy is used to pump protons (H+) into the intermembrane space. This process is efficient, but a small percentage of electrons may prematurely reduce oxygen, forming

Protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space during the electron transport chain process. This creates an electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP via ATP synthase.